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APPENDIXES
260
Appendix 2-1
Review of Literature and Relevant Research
PROFILE OF WOMEN IN ACADEMIC SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:
1995-2003
The 2001 National Academies’ study, From Scarcity to Visibility: Gender Differences in
the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers (NRC, 2001) examined the careers of men and
women scientists and engineers using data from the Survey of Doctoral Recipients (SDR) for
four selected years: 1973, 1979, 1989, and 1995. The first part of this appendix provides
descriptive data from the SDR for 1995 to 2003, the time period when the surveys of faculty and
departments were initiated.4 This overview presents data on basic trends in female participation
and standing among S&E faculty for 1995 to 2003, including the number of employed
doctorates, the fields in which scientists and engineers worked, and the proportions who worked
in academia. Academics are further disaggregated by the types of institutions in which they
worked, their fields of study, their tenure status, and their professorial rank. It is important to
remember that the SDR covers doctoral recipients in all fields of science and engineering and
working in all sectors of the economy. This appendix focuses only on those doctoral scientists
and engineers who were employed full-time and whose doctorate was in the natural sciences and
engineering, excluding the social sciences.5
THE DOCTORAL POOL
The number and proportion of women receiving doctorates in S&E grew from 8,648
(31.7 percent) in 1996 to 10,533 (37.7 percent) in 2005, as shown in Figure A2-1.
4
The results of analyses are not strictly comparable, as the earlier report used a different definition of S&E, among
other differences.
5
From the Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) field list, this is equivalent to any field coded from 005 to 599.
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APPENDIXES 261
20000
18000
16000
Doctorates Awarded
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
Female Male
FIGURE A2-1 Number of doctorates awarded annually in science and engineering, by gender,
1996-2005
SOURCE: Hill (2006). Adapted from Tables 2 and 3.
NOTE: These data are for all science and engineering fields, including the social and behavioral
sciences.
Increases in women’s participation differed by field. Growth was particularly evident, as noted
in Table A2-1, in civil engineering, the agricultural sciences, and the earth, atmospheric and
oceanic sciences. But every field, other than industrial/manufacturing engineering, saw increases
in the proportion of doctorates awarded to women over the ten year period. 6
6
The one recent exception appears to be the medical or health sciences, where the proportion of women among
Ph.D.s seemed to have leveled off.
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APPENDIXES
262
TABLE A2-1 Percent of females among science and engineering doctorates,
1996 and 2005
2005 - 1996
Field 1996 2005
6.0
Science and engineering 31.7 37.7
5.8
Science 37.6 43.4
9.0
Agricultural sciences 27.2 36.2
6.6
Biological sciences 42.2 48.8
4.7
Computer sciences 15.1 19.8
13.1
Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 21.0 34.1
6.5
Mathematics 20.6 27.1
4.8
Physical sciences 21.9 26.7
4.9
Astronomy 21.4 26.3
5.8
Chemistry 28.2 34.0
2.0
Physics 13.0 15.0
1.3
Psychology 66.7 68.0
8.2
Social sciences 36.5 44.7
6.0
Engineering 12.3 18.3
4.8
Aeronautical/astronautical engineering 8.4 13.2
6.1
Chemical engineering 17.9 24.0
11.9
Civil engineering 11.3 23.2
3.7
Electrical engineering 9.7 13.4
-1.2
Industrial/manufacturing engineering 19.7 18.5
7.6
Materials/metallurgical engineering 14.6 22.2
4.9
Mechanical engineering 7.4 12.3
7.2
Other engineering 16.6 23.8
SOURCE: Hill (2006). Adapted from Table 3.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS
In 2003, the NSF identified 492,440 doctoral scientists and engineers (or 685,300 if the
social sciences and psychology are included) (NSF, 2006). Most of these doctoral scientists and
engineers worked full-time. However, women were slightly less likely to be employed full-time.
In a previous analysis of SDR data, NRC (2001:64) found “after completion of the
doctorate, a greater proportion of women than men do not attain full-time careers in science and
engineering.” For example, in 1973, 91 percent of male scientists and engineers were working
full-time, compared with 71 percent of females. By 1995, this 20 percent gap had been reduced
to around 10 percent—partly because the percentage of men working full-time dropped.7 For all
years surveyed, women were more likely than men to be not working and not seeking work, or
working part-time. For most years examined, women were more likely than men to be not
7
Recall that Long’s definition of S&E includes the social and behavioral sciences and is thus broader than the
definition employed here.
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APPENDIXES 263
working, but seeking work. About 4 percent of women S&E doctorates are not working and not
seeking work. These were fully trained doctorates who were not working in S&E.8
“Employment status” consisted of four mutually exclusive categories: employed full-
time, employed part-time, unemployed but seeking work, and unemployed and not seeking work.
Figure A2-2 examines full-time employment and compares the percentages of full-time
employed doctoral scientists and engineers9 to the total number of doctoral scientists and
engineers. As this figure shows, women were less likely to be employed full-time than men,
although the rate for both men and women was dropping slightly over time, and the gap was
closing.
100
90
80
70
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Year
Female Male
FIGURE A2-2 Percent of all doctoral scientists and engineers who were employed full-time, by
gender, 1995-2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
This finding was consistent with the earlier work of NRC (2001) and others, who
employed different analyses. For example, the NSF (WMPDSE, 2002) noted “women with
either an S&E degree or in an S&E occupation are less likely than men to be in the labor force
8
The Committee’s charge did not include a focus on exploring the reasons for gender differences in labor force
outcomes outside of academia. Readers should refer to Long (2001) and Xie and Shauman (2003) for a discussion
of such factors.
9
These data are for just the natural sciences and engineering, as defined in Footnote 7.
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APPENDIXES
264
(that is, either employed or seeking employment). Among those in the labor force, women were
more likely than men to be unemployed.” The NSF also noted:
A higher percentage of women than men with either an S&E degree or in an S&E
occupation are employed part time. Of those who were employed in 1999, 19
percent of women and 6 percent of men were employed part-time. Women who
are employed part-time are less likely than men to prefer full-time employment.
Also, women who are employed part-time are far more likely than men to cite
family responsibilities as the reason for their employment status: 48 percent of the
women working part-time and 12 percent of the men cited family responsibilities
as the reason for their work status in 1999. On the other hand, 41 percent of men
and 8 percent of women cited retirement as the reason for part-time employment.
Thus, as with unemployment, variations in male/female age distribution, as well
as varying family responsibilities, are factors in part-time employment choices.10
Figure A2-3 examines the proportion of women among full-time employed doctoral
scientists and engineers between 1995 and 2003. The proportion of women among those
employed full-time, while still small, was rising slowly. Increases “in the number of women
among new Ph.D.s do not translate directly into increases in the proportion of women in the
science and engineering labor force. Each new cohort of Ph.D.s represents only a small fraction
of the total number of scientists and engineers. The proportion of women in the S&E labor force
must increase slowly as older, predominantly male cohorts retire and are replaced by new
cohorts that have a greater proportion of women (NRC, 2001:63).”
50
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Year
FIGURE A2-3 Percent of women among doctoral scientists and engineers employed full time,
1995-2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
10
Ellipses omitted.
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APPENDIXES 265
EMPLOYMENT DISCIPLINE
This section briefly examines the distribution of doctoral scientists and engineers
employed full time by field and gender. As shown in Figure A2-4, women employed in the
biological, physical, and health sciences were the most likely to be working full time. In the case
of men, those who were employed in engineering and the physical sciences were more likely to
be working full time.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Percent
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Female Male
Agriculture Biological Sciences Health Sciences
Engineering Math and Computer Science Physical Sciences
FIGURE A2-4 Distribution of full-time employed S&E doctorates by discipline and gender,
1995-2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
Figure A2-5 examines the percentage of women among doctorates employed full time in six
different disciplines. Although the percentage of women among scientists and engineers was
rising, women still made up a small fraction of those employed in the agricultural sciences,
engineering, mathematics and computer science, and the physical sciences.
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APPENDIXES
266
60%
50%
40%
Percent
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995
1999
2003
1995
1999
2003
1995
1999
2003
1995
1999
2003
1995
1999
2003
1995
1999
2003
Agriculture Biological Engineering Health Math/CS Physical
FIGURE A2-5 Percent of females among doctorates employed full time, by discipline, 1995-
2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
EMPLOYMENT SECTOR
This section considers the employment sector of those who were employed full-time.
NRC (2001:102) noted that “sector of employment is a fundamental dimension of the scientific
career that affects work experience, opportunities, employment security, and prestige.” An
often-used distinction among employment sectors for doctorate holders in S&E is: industry,
government, and education. Often, education is narrowly defined to encompass doctoral
scientists and engineers working at colleges and universities that award at least a two-year
degree (NRC, 2001). In this section, however, education includes K-12. Outside of education,
the other employment sectors include: industry; not-for-profit organizations; self-employed
persons; local, state, or federal government; or the U.S. military.
According to previous literature, employed women with doctorates in S&E were more
likely to be in academia and less likely to be in industry (NRC, 2001). This finding was echoed
by the NSF, which noted that women were more likely than men to be at four-year academic
institutions and less likely to be in business or industry (NSF, 2007). The authors argued that
these differences “primarily stem from differences in occupation. Women are less likely than
men to be engineers or physical scientists, which are occupations that tend to be in business or
industry (p. 66).” The NSF’s final point, as well as findings from NRC (2001), suggested that
differences in employment sector vary by discipline; that is, men and women in different areas of
S&E distribute themselves differently across possible employment sectors.
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APPENDIXES 267
Table A2-2 and Figure A2-6 examine the distribution of male and female S&E doctorates
employed full time across two employment sectors: Education and Other*. As Figure A2-6
shows, women are more likely to be in the education sector than men.
TABLE A2-2 Doctoral scientists and engineers employed full time, by sector and gender, 1995-
2003
Gender/Sector Years
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Men
Education 124,770 125,252 128,335 128,170 131,628
Other 151,115 163,076 179,519 184,260 179,588
Percent
Education .45 .43 .42 .41 .42
Women
Education 29,759 32,659 35,726 39,621 43,828
Other 21,195 24,126 29,880 33,585 36,117
Percent
Education .58 .58 .54 .54 .55
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC
*
NOTE: Other includes industry, government, and the non-profit sector. Education in this table
includes K-12 positions.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
ercent
50%
P
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Female Male
Academic Nonacademic
FIGURE A2-6 Percent of doctorates employed full time in education and other sectors, by
gender, 1995-2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
The proportion of women employed full time in the education sector appeared to be increasing
(see Figure A2-7).
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APPENDIXES
268
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
Percent
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Years
FIGURE A2-7 Percent of women among the full-time education workforce, including K-12
education, 1995-2003.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC
ACADEMICS
Male and female academics can be categorized along several dimensions. The first
section examines academics by field and by the type of higher education institution in which
they worked, followed by the distribution of men and women faculty across tenure status and
rank. The term “academic” is used here to denote faculty, which are personnel with teaching or
research duties, who are employed at a higher education institution (college or university), and
who are further identified as being tenured or on tenure track or as holding the rank of assistant,
associate, or full professor.
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APPENDIXES 269
Distribution by Discipline
As Figure A2-8 shows, more than half of the faculty in the health sciences in 1995-2003
were women. The biological sciences also had relatively large proportions of female faculty (20-
30 percent). In the other four disciplines, and especially in engineering, women made up a small
fraction of the faculty. In every field, however, the proportion of females among faculty was
smaller than the corresponding proportion of females among those earning a doctorate in the
discipline.
70%
60%
50%
40%
Percent
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Agricultural Biological Engineering Health Physical
A griculurial Math and Comp
Sciences Sciences Sciences Sciences
Sciences Sciences
FIGURE A2-8: Percent of faculty who were women, by field, 1995-2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003.
Distribution by Institution Type
In this section, we focus on doctoral scientists and engineers who were employed at
Research I institutions, consisting of institutions that “offer a full range of baccalaureate
programs, are committed to graduate education through the doctorate degree, and give high
priority to research. They award 50 or more doctoral degrees each year. In addition, they receive
annually at least $40 million or more in federal support.” Using the 1994 Carnegie
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APPENDIXES
270
classification, there are 89 Research I institutions in the United States.11 The following tables
group employed doctoral scientists and engineers by the institutional category they reported in
the SDR. There are seven possible institutional categories: Research I, Research II, doctoral-
granting, master’s-granting, medical colleges, baccalaureate (four-year institutions), and other
(including two-year institutions). None of the categories overlaps.
As Figure A2-9 shows, the highest proportion of female faculty was found in medical
colleges, and the lowest percentage of females was found at Research II institutions. Among the
other types of institutions, women tended to make up between 20 and 25 percent of S&E faculty.
The percentage of female faculty employed at Research I institutions was growing steadily in
1995-2003.
35%
30%
25%
20%
Percent
15%
10%
5%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Research I Research II Doctoral Masters Medical Baccalaureate Other
FIGURE A2-9: Percent of faculty who were women, by institution type, 1995-2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003.
Note: Institutional classifications are distinct and do not overlap.
Tenure Status
11
See Alexander C. McCormick, “The 2000 Carnegie Classification: Background and Description (excerpt),”
available at: http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/dynamic/downloads/file_1_341.pdf [accessed on November 4,
2008] . The Carnegie Foundation updated their classification system in 2005 and it can be found here:
http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/.
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APPENDIXES 271
How likely were women to be granted tenure? Using the SDR, we examined tenure
status by gender by comparing faculty with tenure to faculty who were untenured but on the
tenure-track, considering each academic discipline separately. As Figure A2-10 shows, the
percentage of women among tenured faculty appeared to be growing in 1995-2003 in all fields,
while the percentage of women among tenure-track faculty was growing in some fields,
including engineering. The highest proportions of women among the tenure tracked faculty were
found in health sciences.
80%
70%
60%
50%
Percent
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Agriculurial Biological Engineering Health Math and Comp Physical
Agricultural
Sciences Sciences Sciences Sciences Sciences
Sciences
Tenured Faculty Tenure Track Faculty
FIGURE 2-10 Percent of faculty who were women, by tenure status and field, 1995-2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
Among both tenure-track and tenured faculty, women were proportionately more likely to be in
medical colleges. About 15 percent of tenured faculty were women in Research I institutions;
female tenured faculty were rarer at Research II institutions, but more prevalent at Master’s,
Doctoral, and Baccalaureate institutions. The percentage of women among tenured faculty was
growing at Research I institutions (see Figure A2-11).
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APPENDIXES
272
40%
35%
30%
25%
Percent
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Research I Research II Doctoral Masters Medical Baccalaureate Other
Tenured Tenure Track
FIGURE A2-11 Percent of faculty who were women, by tenure status and institution type, 1995-
2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
Rank
Women were less likely to occupy senior positions in academia than men. Using the
SDR, the committee examined rank by comparing the gender of faculty who were assistant,
associate, and full professors, by academic discipline separately. Figure A2-12 shows the
following results:
• Women comprised over 50 percent of all full professors in health sciences, 20 percent in
biological sciences, and 10 percent or less in other fields, with engineering having the
lowest proportion of women full professors.
• The percentage of women among full professors appeared to be rising or remaining level
in each field.
• Women comprised almost 60 percent of all associate professors in health sciences,
approximately 30 percent in biological sciences, and less than 20 percent in other fields,
with engineering having the lowest proportion of women associate professors.
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APPENDIXES 273
• The percentage of women among associate professors appeared to be rising or remaining
level in many fields, but not in agricultural sciences and not in the health sciences.
• Women comprised 65 percent of all assistant professors in health sciences, 39 percent in
biological sciences, between 25 to 27 percent in mathematics, computer, and physical
sciences, with engineering having the lowest proportion of women assistant professors
(less than 20 percent)
• The percentage of women among assistant professors appeared to be roughly steady in
each field.
80%
70%
60%
50%
Percent
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Agricultural Engineering Health Math and Comp Physical
Agriculurial Biological
Sciences Sciences Sciences Sciences
Sciences Sciences
Full Prof Assoc Prof Assist Prof
FIGURE 2-12 Percent of faculty who were women, by rank and field, 1995-2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
This analysis was then repeated, focusing on institution types. Figure A2-13 shows the following
results:
• Women comprised about 25 percent of full professors at medical colleges and about 12
percent at Research I institutions.
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APPENDIXES
274
• The percentage of women among full professors appeared to be rising or remaining level
in each field.
• Women comprised approximately 30 percent of associate professors at medical colleges
and at baccalaureate institutions and approximately 24 percent at Research I institutions.
• The percentage of women among associate professors appeared to be rising or remaining
level at each type of institution, except at medical colleges, where the trend was less
clear.
• Women comprised between 35 and 40 percent of assistant professors at medical colleges.
For assistant professors, there were more similarities across institution type. At each
institution type, the proportion of women among assistant professors tended to be around
30 to 35 percent, excepting Research II institutions, which were lower.
• The percentage of women among assistant professors was rising at Research I institutions
and at medical colleges but was less clear at other types of institutions.
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
Percent
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Research I Research II Doctoral Masters Medical Baccalaureate Other
Full Prof Assoc Prof Asst Prof
FIGURE 2-13 Percent of faculty who were women, by rank and institution type, 1995-2003
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Survey Doctoral Recipients, 1995-2003. Tabulated by
NRC.
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