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Gender Differences at Critical Transitions in the Careers of
Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty
Committee on Gender Differences in Careers of Science, Engineering, and Mathematics
Faculty
Committee on Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine
Policy and Global Affairs
Committee on National Statistics
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by the National Science Foundation, Grant No.0336796. Any
opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are
those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or
agencies that provided support for the project.
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500
Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C. 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-
3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2009 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
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that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
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both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M.
Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Committee on Gender Differences in Careers of Science,
Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty1
Claude Canizares, Co-Chair, Vice President for Research and Associate Provost and
Bruno Rossi Professor of Experimental Physics, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Sally Shaywitz, Co-Chair, Audrey G.Ratner Professor in Learning Development and Co-
Director, Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, Yale University School of
Medicine.
Linda Abriola, Dean of Engineering and Professor of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Tufts University
Jane Buikstra, Professor of Bioarchaeology, Director, Center for Bioarchaeological
Research, Arizona State University School of Human Evolution and Social Change
Alicia Carriquiry, Professor of Statistics, Iowa State University
Ronald Ehrenberg, Director, Cornell Higher Education Research Institute and Irving M.
Ives Professor of Industrial and Labor Relations and Economics, Cornell University
Joan Girgus, Professor of Psychology and Special Assistant to the Dean of the Faculty
for matters concerning gender equity, Princeton University
Arleen Leibowitz, Professor of Public Policy, School of Public Affairs, University of
California at Los Angeles
Thomas N. Taylor, Roy A. Roberts Distinguished Professor, and Senior Curator of the
Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, University of Kansas
Lilian Wu, Director of University Relations, IBM Research
Study Staff
Catherine Didion, Study Director (from September 1, 2007)
Peter Henderson, Study Director (from October 15, 2005 until August 31, 2007)
Jong-on Hahm, Study Director (through October 14, 2005)
Constance F. Citro, Director, Committee on National Statistics
Michael L. Cohen, Senior Program Officer
John Sislin, Program Officer
Elizabeth Briggs, Senior Program Associate
Elizabeth Scott, Project Assistant
Jessica Buono, Research Associate
Jacqueline Martin, Senior Program Assistant
1
Cathleen Synge Morawetz, Professor Emerita, the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York
University and Yu Xie, Frederick G. L. Huetwell Professor of Sociology, University of Michigan resigned
their committee appointments in 2004.
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Committee on Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine
2007-2009
Lilian Shiao-Yen Wu, Chair, Director of University Relations, IBM Research
Alice M. Agogino, Roscoe and Elizabeth Hughes Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
University of California, Berkeley
Florence B. Bonner, Associate Vice President for Research & Compliance, Howard
University
Allan Fisher, V. President, Product Strategy & Development, Laureate Higher Education
Group
June Osborn, President Emerita, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation
Vivian Pinn, Director, Office of Research on Women’s Health, National Institutes of
Health
Pardis Sabeti, Assistant Professor, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology,
Harvard University
Lydia Villa-Komaroff, CEO, Cytonone, Inc.
Warren Washington, Senior Scientist & Section Head, National Center for Atmospheric
Research
Susan Wessler, Regents Professor, Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia
Staff
Catherine Didion, Director (From March 1, 2007)
Peter Henderson, Director (October 15, 2005-March 1, 2007)
Jong-on Hahm, Director (Until October 14, 2005)
John Sislin, Program Officer
Elizabeth Briggs, Senior Program Associate
Jessica Buono, Research Associate
Jacqueline Martin, Senior Program Assistant
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Committee on National Statistics
2008-2009
William F. Eddy (Chair), Department of Statistics, Carnegie Mellon University
Katharine Abraham, Department of Economics and Joint Program in Survey
Methodology, University of Maryland
Alicia Carriquiry, Department of Statistics, Iowa State University
William DuMouchel, Lincoln Technologies, Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts
John Haltiwanger, Department of Economics, University of Maryland
V. Joseph Hotz, Department of Economics, Duke University
Karen Kafadar, Department of Statistics, Indiana University
Douglas Massey, Department of Sociology, Princeton University
Sally Morton, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Joseph Newhouse, Division of Health Policy Research and Education, Harvard
University
Samuel H. Preston, Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania
Hal Stern, Department of Statistics, University of California, Irvine
Roger Tourangeau, Joint Program in Survey Methodology, University of Maryland, and
Survey Research Center, University of Michigan
Alan Zaslavsky, Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard University Medical School
Constance F. Citro, Director, Committee on National Statistics
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PREFACE
Difficult tasks are often very simply stated. This committee was asked by
Congress to “conduct a study to assess gender differences in the careers of science,
engineering, and mathematics (SEM) faculty, focusing on four-year institutions of higher
education that award bachelor’s and graduate degrees. The study will build on the
Academy’s previous work and examine issues such as faculty hiring, promotion, tenure,
and allocation of institutional resources including (but not limited to) laboratory space.”
That such an assessment would be daunting was well understood by the committee. The
importance of the study provided more than ample motivation to keep the committee
engaged and focused on crafting an objective report that would advance our knowledge
on the status of women academics in science and engineering at the nation’s top
universities.
To address its charge, the committee drew on a large number of scholarly studies,
survey data collected by federal agencies and professional societies among others, self-
assessments conducted by universities—as well as a number of experts brought in to
meet with the committee. After reviewing the above information, the committee
determined to conduct two comprehensive surveys. These surveys were sent to the major
research universities across the United States during 2004-2005. The surveys focused on
biology, chemistry, civil and electrical engineering, mathematics, and physics. One
focused on almost 500 departments in these disciplines and the other was sent to more
than 1,800 faculty. These surveys bring much needed additional information to the table.
The survey of departments collected information on departmental characteristics, hiring,
tenure and promotion decisions, and related policies. The survey of faculty focused on
demographic characteristics, employment history, and institutional resources received.
The committee was delighted with the response to the surveys. The departmental survey
had about an 85 percent response rate and the faculty survey had a response rate of about
77 percent. The committee extends their thanks to everyone who filled out the
questionnaires, which were undoubtedly time consuming. Respondents were very open
with their information, as they were promised confidentiality. While the data must
remain restricted to maintain that confidentiality, we believe these data could be used in
further studies for the benefit of the scientific community without violating the
confidentiality of respondents.
A related point is that while the committee examined a tremendous amount of
information, a comprehensive and conclusive assessment of faculty careers remains in the
future. The committee has done all it can given its resources to advance our
understanding of this important issue, but additional research and study remain. If it
could, this committee would have continued expanding, refining, and enhancing its
analysis. The committee trusts that others will be encouraged to pursue further some of
the avenues the committee has started down and to answer some of the questions that
arose in this report, drawing on their own innovative approaches to examining the
trajectory of academic careers of men and women.
Claude Canizares Sally Shaywitz
Co-Chair Co-Chair
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by
the National Academies’ Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent
review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making
its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional
standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review
comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Robert Birgeneau, University of California, Berkeley; Claudia Goldin, Harvard
University; Susan Graham, University of California, Berkeley; Jo Handelsman,
University of Wisconsin; Maria Klawe, Harvey Mudd College; J. Scott Long, Indiana
University; Colm O’Muircheartaigh,University of Chicago; Barbara Reskin, University
of Washington; Johanna Levelt Sengers, National Institute of Standards and Technology;
and Richard Zare, Stanford University.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments
and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor
did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was
overseen by Stephen Fienberg, Carnegie Mellon University and Mildred Dresselhaus,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Appointed by the National Academies, they were
responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried
out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were
carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with
the authoring committee and the institution..
We would like to thank all the faculty and departments who took the time to
complete our surveys. We greatly appreciate the effort and the report could not have
been a success without their help. In addition, the committee would like to thank staff of
the project for their assistance, including Charlotte Kuh, deputy executive director of
Policy and Global Affairs Division; Catherine Didion, the current director of CWSEM;
Michael Cohen, senior program officer of CNSTAT; Marilyn Baker, director for reports
and communications for the Policy and Global Affairs Division; Jong-on Hahm, who
managed the project as the former director of CWSE; Peter Henderson, who took over as
study director and interim director of CWSE; John Sislin, program officer; Jim Voytuk,
senior program officer and George Reinhart, former senior program officer for their
assistance with data and surveys; Elizabeth Briggs; Jessica Buono; Jacqueline Martin;
Amber Carrier; Melissa McCartney; Norman Bradburn, who consulted on the surveys
and data; John Tsapogas for assistance with SDR data; and Dan Heffron for assistance
with NSOPF data; and Rachel Ivie and Roman Czujko and everyone at the American
Institute of Physics, who implemented the surveys.
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CONTENTS
Summary 1
1 Introduction 13
Why Disparities Matter, 14
The Committee’s Charge, 16
Approach and Scope, 17
Approach, 17
Scope, 19
Differences & Commonalities with Other National
Academies’ Reports, 22
Sources of Information, 24
Outline of Report, 25
2 Status of Women in Academic Science and Engineering
in 2004 and 2005 27
Degrees Earned, 28
Faculty Representation, 28
Professional Activities and Climate, 31
3 Gender Differences in Academic Hiring 35
The Hiring Process, 35
Advertising the Position, 36
The Decision to Apply, 36
Requests for Campus Visits, Interviews, and Selection, 37
The Decision to Accept or Reject the Offer, 37
Data on Hiring, 37
Applications for Faculty Positions, 39
Descriptive Data, 39
Statistical Analysis, 44
Selection for Interviews for S&E Jobs, 46
Descriptive Data, 46
Factors Associated with a Higher Proportion
of Female Interviews, 49
Statistical Analysis
Offers Made
Factors Associated with a Higher Probability that
a Woman will be Offered a Position, 53
Statistical Analysis, 53
Hires, 54
Faculty Perspective on Hiring, 55
Institutional Policies for Increasing the
Diversity of Applicant Pools, 57
Summary of Findings, 60
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4 Professional Activities, Institutional Resources, Climate, and Outcomes 65
Professional Activities, 67
Research, 68
Teaching, 69
Service, 71
Institutional Resources, 72
Start-up Funds, 73
Summer Salary, 73
Travel Funds, 73
Reduced Teaching Loads, 73
Lab Space, 74
Equipment, 77
Support Staff, 81
Climate, 79
Mentoring, 80
Collaborative Research, 81
Faculty Interaction, 81
Participation on Committees, 82
Outcomes, 83
Research Productivity, 84
Nominations for Honors and Awards, 94
Salary, 95
Outside Offers, 98
Job Satisfaction, 99
Summary of Findings, 102
5 Gender Differences in Tenure and Promotion 107
Tenure and Promotion Processes, 108
Service on Tenure and Promotion Committees, 110
Equity in Tenure and Promotion Decisions, 111
Tenure and Promotion Awards, 113
Tenure Descriptive Data, 113
Promotion Descriptive Data, 115
Factors Influencing Tenure and Promotion Decisions, 116
Multivariate Analysis, 118
Time in Rank, 123
Multivariate Modeling of Time in Assistant Professor Rank, 127
Multivariate Modeling of Time in Associate Professor Rank, 133
Summary of Findings, 136
6 Key Findings and Recommendations 141
Bibliography 155
Appendixes 191
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables
SUMMARY TABLE 1 Representation of women in faculty positions, by rank and field, 5
SUMMARY TABLE 2 Transitions from Ph.D. to tenure-track positions, by field at the Research
Intensive (RI) Institutions Surveyed, 6
TABLE 2-1 S&E doctorate holders employed in academia as full-time senior faculty by sex and
degree field, 2003, 29
TABLE 2-2 S&E doctorate holders employed in academia as full-time junior faculty, by sex and
degree field, 2003, 29
TABLE 3-1 Number of tenured and tenure-track positions with complete information about the
gender of applicants, by discipline, 42
TABLE 3-2 Percentage of women in the doctoral pool and distribution of the percentage of
women among job applicants for tenure-track positions, by discipline, 43
TABLE 3-3 Mean proportion of females among applicants and among interviewees in each
discipline, 47
TABLE 3-4 Percent of positions for which no women were interviewed, by type of position, 48
TABLE 3-5 Percent of first offers, by gender and type of position, 51
TABLE 3-6 Distribution of percentage of female interviews and offers, by discipline, 52
TABLE 3-7 Percent of candidates of each gender who received the first offer and gender of
candidates of each gender who eventually accepted each tenure-track position, 54
TABLE 3-8 First offer and person hired for tenured jobs, percent by gender, 55
TABLE 3-9 Steps taken to increase the gender diversity of the candidate pool, 59
TABLE 3-10 Number of policy steps taken by departments, 60
TABLE 4-1 Average measures of recent research productivity, by gender, 86
TABLE 4-2 Percentage of people who received grant funding by gender, rank of faculty and
mentor status, 91
TABLE 4-3 Satisfaction of faculty with employment, by gender, 100
TABLE 5-1 Percent of responding departments that decide tenure and promotion together, by
discipline, 109
TABLE 5-2 Years between hiring and tenure decision, 110
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TABLE 5-3 Female participation in tenure and promotion committees, 111
TABLE 5-4 Tenure award rates, by gender and discipline, 115
TABLE 5-5 Promotion to full professor by gender and discipline, 116
TABLE 5-6 Tracking cohorts entering the tenure track through seven years: Pennsylvania State
University
TABLE 5-7 Results of faculty reviews at two, four and six years following hire: Pennsylvania
State University, 2004-2005, 122
TABLE 5-8 Mean number of years between rank achieved and first faculty or instructional staff
job by gender, for full-time faculty at research I institutions, Fall 2003, 124
TABLE 5-9 Mean number of months spent as an assistant professor, 125
TABLE 5-10 Mean number of months between receipt of Ph.D. and promotion to associate
professor, 126
TABLE 5-11 Mean number of months spent as an associate professor, 127
Table 5-12 Results obtained from a Cox proportional hazards regression analysis of 351 cases
that had complete promotion and covariate information, 128
TABLE 5-13 Number of faculty by gender and rank who reported stopping or not stopping the
tenure clock or who did not respond to the survey question, 133
TABLE 6-1 Representation of women in Faculty positions at Research I institutions by rank and
field (%) 1995-2003, 141
TABLE 6-2 Transitions from PhD to tenure-track positions by field at the Research I institution
surveyed, 142.
Figures
FIGURE 3-1 (a-c) Histogram of the proportion of females among applicants to all tenure and
tenure-track positions in research I universities, 40
FIGURE 3-2 Main considerations for selecting current position, by gender, 56
FIGURE 4-1 Mean percent of time faculty spent on research and fund-raising, by gender, 69
FIGURE 4-2 Mean lab space reported by respondents, by gender and field, 76
FIGURE 4-3 Percent of men and women reporting having access to all the equipment they need
to conduct their research, 78
FIGURE 4-4 Percent of faculty reporting they had access to all the clerical support they needed,
by gender and field
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FIGURE 4-5 Inclusion in unit processes and culture, by gender and discipline, 80
FIGURE 4-6 Percent of faculty responding that they had a mentor, by gender and field, 81
FIGURE 4-7 Mean number of sole or coauthored articles in refereed journals, by gender and
discipline, 85
FIGURE 4-8 Percent of faculty reporting that they have at least one research grant on which they
served as a PI or Co-PI, by gender and field, 89
FIGURE 4-9: Histogram of the logarithm of grant amount, 91
FIGURE 4-10 Histogram of the logarithm of lab space, 93
FIGURE 5-1 Probability of tenure for men and women candidates as a function of the proportion
of tenure-eligible women in the department, 120
FIGURE 5-2 Probability of tenure for men and women candidates as a function of the proportion
of women in the department, 120
FIGURE 5-3 (a-d) Survival curves for male faculty who are currently full professors or associate
professors and for female faculty who are currently full professors or associate professors , 129-
130
FIGURE 5-4 (a-b) One minus the probability of promotion to full professor for males and
females in biology and electrical engineering, 135
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