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Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, and How
Index
21st Century Learning Skills, 445
A
A Developmentally Appropriate Practices Template (ADAPT), 162-163, 175
Abecedarian Project, 104, 111
Access to health care, 75
Access to test data, 3
Accommodations
for children with disabilities, 5, 8, 40, 250, 254, 259, 260, 267, 273, 276-279, 295-296, 298, 330-331, 353, 367
defined, 423
for English language learners, 250, 254, 366
Accountability.
See also High-stakes assessment
appropriate use of assessments, 35-36, 39-41, 167, 198, 259
current practice, 326
demand for assessments, 1, 18-19, 246, 280
development of instruments for, 367-368
interpreting test data, 35
observational measures, 147-148, 149, 167, 201-202, 203, 204
program evaluation, 18-19, 35-36, 54, 226-231
program impacts, 36
purposes of assessments for, 34-37, 39-41
selecting assessment tools, 40-41, 102, 201, 226-231
social benchmarking, 36-37
special considerations in using assessments, 39-41, 119, 226-231, 337
standards of, 307
tools/instruments, 39-40, 259, 254
universal design principles and, 277
validity of data, 40, 54-55, 198
Accreditation standards, 45
Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, 81
Achievement tests, 30-31, 113, 131, 133, 136, 137, 140, 153, 236-237, 242, 254-255, 271, 423.
See also Readiness for school;
individual instruments
Adapted EZ-Yale Personality/Motivation Questionnaire, 122, 123, 128
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Adaptive Social Behavior Index, 122
Administration for Children and Families (ACF), 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 53, 55
Administration of assessments.
See also Implementing assessments
accommodations for children with disabilities, 272, 295-296
to English language learners, 105, 116-117, 260, 291-295
familiarity of assessor to child, 185-186, 227, 286-288
guidelines, 37-39, 268-269, 272
individualization of, 272
length of, 288-291, 294
order of, 293-294
standardization, 40, 74-75, 287
standards for testing, 250-251
stop rules, 290-291
training of examiners, 3, 33, 64, 102, 150, 256, 285-286, 291, 294-295
Age of children, 3, 38, 71, 194
Ages and Stages, 77
Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure, 84
Alberta Infant Motor Scale, 80
Alternative assessment. See Performance assessments
American Academy of Pediatrics, 67, 68, 70, 71, 453
American Educational Research Association, 55
American Psychological Association, 107
Approaches to learning
consensus, 97-98
constructs, 97, 107
domain defined, 58, 97
early childhood education standards, 445
instruments, 128-129
intervention studies, 99
malleability, 99
measures of, 100
and outcomes, 98-99
testing all children, 100, 242
Appropriate use of assessments
accommodations for disabilities, 5, 8, 267, 295-296, 298, 330-331, 353
for accountability, 35-36, 39-41, 167, 198, 259
age and, 3, 38, 71,194
defining, 22, 184
developmental delays and, 38, 271
domain definition and, 3, 184, 433
English language learners, 3, 40, 250-251, 256, 258, 259, 292, 293, 295, 298
guidelines for, 37-39, 270, 345-346, 353, 360
inclusivity and, 320-321, 322
legal and ethical precedents, 250-251
level of expectation for program target and, 197
minority children, 3, 235-240, 243, 244, 259
program evaluation, 39, 86, 148, 197-198, 259, 297
for progress monitoring, 39, 86, 148, 197, 259, 297
purpose of assessment and, 27, 259, 283, 341-342, 344, 433
for quality of learning environments, 320
readiness assessment, 31
for screening, 360
for special needs children, 3, 4, 38, 40, 271, 280, 283
standardization sample and methods and, 237-238, 243, 271
test and item bias, 205, 210-212, 235-240, 243
for testing all children, 96, 100, 104-106, 112, 116-117
testing situation and assessor characteristics and, 238-239
Assessment, Evaluation and Programming System (AEPS), 333
Assessment, generally.
See also Instruments for assessment
current forms, 324-328
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defined, 27, 264-265, 313, 424
early learning standards aligned with, 184-185
follow-up, 30, 39
hypothesis, 191
modes, 28
multitiered model, 263-264
Assessment of Preterm Infants’ Behavior (APIB), 70
Assessment Profile for Early Childhood Programs (APECP), 157-160, 174
Assessor/examiner
bias, 205, 238-239, 245-246
bilingual, 247, 250, 256, 260, 294-295
certification process, 285-286, 295, 296
familiarity of assessor to child, 185-186, 227, 286-288, 351
teachers as, 287
training, 3, 33, 64, 102, 150, 256, 260, 285-286, 291, 294-295, 366
Attachment/caregiver-child interaction, 84, 153.
See also Parent-child interaction;
Teacher-child relationships
Attachment Q-set, 242
Attention span, 63, 70, 73, 86, 91, 92, 93, 96, 98, 99, 100, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 124, 129, 130, 164, 202, 245, 271
Authentic assessment, 22, 39, 200, 201, 204, 269, 271, 364, 424.
See also Observational measures
Automated analysis tools, 101
Automated auditory brainstem response, 66
B
Bank Street curriculum, 335
Battelle Developmental Inventory Screening Test, 77
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 40, 78, 80, 81, 88, 113, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129, 133, 242, 285, 288
Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC), 124, 129, 242, 255
Benchmarks
defined, 185
social, 36-37, 40
Bias in assessments.
See also Reliability of assessments;
Validity of assessments
and appropriate use of assessments, 205, 210-212, 235-240, 243
confirmationist, 189
confounding variables, 185, 235, 241, 243, 245
contextual factors, 235-237, 243
defining, 235, 243
differential item functioning, 193, 206-210, 213
direction bias, 239
empirical evidence of, 185, 240-246
English language learners, 252, 253
examiner, 205, 238-239, 245-246, 351
item, 207, 212, 244
methods for assessing, 205-213, 241-246
minority children, 233-246
mono-operation of, 243
and predictive validity, 240
psychometric issues, 235, 240, 243-244
research needs, 365-366
restriction of range, 211, 212
situational factors, 238-239, 245-246
and social consequences of assessment, 195-196, 239-240, 283
standardization samples and methods and, 237-238, 241, 243, 253, 271
systematic, 237
test bias, 212, 213, 244, 245, 252
validity generalization, 187, 210-213
Bracken Basic Concept Scale-Revised (BBCS-R), 133, 134, 136, 137, 141
Brief Infant-Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA), 81
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Brigance Screens, 77
Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 215, 450, 452
C
California Desired Results for Children and Families (DRCF)
Access for Children with Disabilities Project, 273-274, 330-331
Desired Results Developmental Profile, 10, 36, 118, 277, 309-310, 312, 330, 332, 339, 358
system, 277, 329-332
California Preschool Learning Foundations in Social and Emotional Development for Ages 3 and 4, 90
Capute Scales (CAT/CLAMS), 78
Caregiver. See Parent-child interaction;
Primary caregiver child interactions
Caregiver Interaction Scale (CIS), 160-161, 174
Caregiver-Teacher Report Form, 124, 125
Center-based environments.
See also Classroom environments
components, 99
quality measures, 155-156, 160, 162, 168, 169, 173
Center for Universal Design, 277
Cerebral palsy, 68, 69
Charge to committee, 20-22
Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), 81
Child Behavior Checklist, 122, 124, 125, 242
Child Care and Development Fund, 49
Child Development Inventory and Child Development Review Parent Questionnaire, 78
Child/Home Early Language and Literacy Observation (CHELLO), 153-154, 174
Child Trends, 150, 157, 215
Children with disabilities. See Special needs children
Children’s Behavior Questionnaire, 83
Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), 147, 150, 161, 174
Classroom environments
ADAPT, 162-163, 175
APECP, 157-160, 174
CIS, 160-161, 174
CLASS, 161, 174
CPI, 161-162, 175
dimensions observable in, 158-159, 171
EAS, 166-167, 175
ECCOM, 165, 175
ECERS-E, 164-165, 175
ECERS-R, 163-164, 175
ELLCO, 154, 165-166, 175, 334
FDCRS, 167, 176
implementing guidelines, 369-370
ITERS-R, 168, 176, 334
observation measures, 146, 154, 156-157, 158-159, 165-166, 168-169, 173, 175, 176, 334
OMLIT, 168-169, 176
ORCE, 169-170, 176
PCMI, 170-171, 176
PQA, 171-172, 177
purposes of assessment, 147-149
quality of, 104
SELA, 172, 177
SELLCA, 172-173, 177
Classroom Literacy Instruction Profile, 169
Classroom Literacy Opportunities Checklist, 168
Classroom Practices Inventory (CPI), 161-162, 175
Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF) Preschool Behavioral Observation Checklist, 121, 123, 129, 132, 139, 141, 142
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Cognitive skills.
See also Attention span;
Executive functioning;
General knowledge;
Intelligence tests;
Memory
consensus, 109
continuity and associations with important outcomes, 108, 110
domain defined, 58, 106-109
English language learners, 253-254
infants, 108, 110, 113
instruments, 68, 77-78, 110, 111, 130-132, 253
lead poisoning and, 68
malleability, 111-112
measures of, 107, 108, 110, 113, 153-154
minority children, 242
nutritional deficiency and, 67, 76
quality of environment and, 108, 148, 151, 153-154, 170
standards of learning, 89
stimulation in home environments, 146, 151-152, 153-154
testing all children, 112, 242, 253-254
Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales, 79
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, 103, 140
Concepts About Print, 102, 140
Congenital hypothyroidism, 65
Connor’s Rating Scales-Revised (CRS-R), 125
Construct, defined, 186.
See also Validity of assessments
Construct-irrelevant variance, 188, 191, 196, 274-275, 277, 278, 424
Context measures, 60
Contextual issues, 15-20, 40-41, 63-64, 67 n.1, 168, 226-231, 235-237, 243, 247, 250, 257-258
Continuous performance task (CPT), 113, 128
Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Early Childhood (DEC), 33, 38, 39, 268, 269
Council of Chief State School Officers, 38, 44, 308-309, 437 n.1, 439-440, 445-446
Creative Curriculum Developmental Continuum, 33, 120, 123, 132, 139, 333, 335
Criterion-referenced assessment, 33, 238, 265, 278, 424, 427
Curiosity Corner curriculum, 335
Curriculum-based measurement, 33, 113, 255, 265, 272, 364, 369, 371, 372, 424
D
Databases on measurement instruments, 452-453
Day/night test, 113
Delay-of-Gratification Task, 122, 128
Denver Developmental Screening Test II, 77, 88, 120, 127, 144
Denver Prescreening Developmental Questionnaire, 77
Desired Results Developmental Profile, 10, 36, 118, 277, 309-310, 312, 330, 332, 339, 358, 375
Developmental assessment
charge to committee, 21-22, 431-432
clinical guidelines, 70
contexts for, 63-64
defined, 424
infants and toddlers, 2, 65, 70-72, 73, 110, 261
mandatory, 75
newborns, 68-70
normal limits, 72, 74
research agenda, 12, 360-368
for special needs children, 76, 261, 271, 369
types, 71, 77-84
Developmental delays, 38, 64, 65, 262, 263, 271.
See also Special needs children
Developmental Indicators for Assessment of Learning Revised, 77
Developmental outcome measures, 69, 73, 88, 275-276
English language learners, 52, 54, 55
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guidelines on, 5-6, 348-349
Head Start Child Outcomes Framework, 49-52
important characteristics, 338
rationale for guidelines, 346-348
Developmental Profile-II, 77
Developmental scales, 77, 102, 225
Developmentally appropriate practice, 27, 38, 153, 161-163, 165, 171, 175, 364, 425
Devereux Early Childhood Assessment, 81, 125
Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation (DELV), 106, 140
Diagnostic testing, 30, 63
instruments, 78, 79, 80, 363-364
language and literacy delays/disorders, 101, 102, 106
referral for, 75
research needs, 363-364
special needs children, 262-264
Direct assessments, 4, 50 n.1, 111, 119.
See also individual instruments
adverse consequences, 3, 17
challenges with very young children, 28, 101
defined, 200-201
interpreting scores, 17, 351
strengths and weaknesses, 202-205
Directional Stroop Battery, 95
Disabilities. See Developmental delays;
Special needs children
Domains.
See also individual domains
appropriateness for subgroups, 3, 275
availability of instruments, 118
bias testing with minority populations by, 242
categorizing, 58-59
defining content, 3, 184, 433
of development, 71-72
early childhood education standards, 44, 97, 441-444
evidence of importance, 57-58
functional outcomes for special needs children compared, 4, 275-276
guidelines on, 5, 348-349
Head Start, 50-52
infant-toddler period, 63
instruments by, 71, 77-84, 87
justifications for, 59-60, 346-348
measurement ease, 17
overlap across, 275
schooling-related, 86
subscales, 87
Dots Task, 95
Dynamic assessment, 143, 144, 425
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, 143, 144
E
Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM), 165, 175
Early Childhood Education Assessment Consortium, 44, 437 n.1, 439-440, 445-446
Early childhood education standards
for accreditation, 45
alignment with assessments, 184-185, 335-336, 338
concerns about, 46, 48
content, by state, 439-444
defined, 44, 437 n.1
development history, 36-37, 45-52, 437-447
differences among state documents, 438-439
domains, 44, 97, 441-444, 445
Good Start, Grow Smart initiative, 52-53
Head Start Child Outcomes Framework, 46, 49-52, 184, 445
important influences, 48-49
K-12 learning standards and, 445-447
national, 46
National Reporting System, 20, 23, 47, 49, 53-55, 201, 273, 284, 430
state, 45-46, 97
uses, 44
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Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Extension (ECERS-E), 164-165, 175
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised Edition (ECERS-R), 147, 163-164, 167, 168, 175, 336
Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center, 23
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort, 36, 285, 288
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten (ECLS-K), 36, 98, 100, 122, 128, 129, 201, 266-267, 273, 367
Early Head Start, 23, 63, 64, 104, 111, 152, 201, 266-267, 430, 438, 450
Research and Evaluation Study, 152, 201, 267, 285, 466
Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation (ELLCO), 154, 165-166, 175, 334
Early Language Milestone Scale, 79
Early Learning Assessment System, 335-336
Early Motor Pattern Profile (EMPP), 80
Early Training Project, 111
Educational Testing Service, 71, 207, 215, 452, 453
Effect sizes, 111, 208-209
Emerging Academics Snapshot (EAS), 166-167, 175
Emotion Matters II Direct assessments, 95
English language learners
accommodations, 250, 254, 366
administration of assessments, 105, 116-117, 250-251, 260, 291-295
appropriateness of assessments for, 3, 40, 250-251, 256, 258, 259, 292, 293, 295, 298
assessment issues, 23, 110, 112, 208-209, 249-258, 350-351
cognitive assessments, 253-254
contextual issues, 247, 250, 257-258
domains, 251-255
examiner issues, 247, 250
guidelines from professional organizations, 38
home environment, 146
inclusion in assessments, 36, 40, 254, 259-260, 320
instruments for assessment, 54, 100, 172-173, 247, 251-255, 257, 351
language and literacy assessment, 104-105, 172-173, 248-249, 251-252, 291-292, 332
legal and ethical standards, 249, 250-251, 254, 256
outcome measures, 52, 54, 55
population characteristics, 247-249
principles of assessment, 258-260
quality of learning environment, 172-173
research needs, 253, 256-258, 259, 366-367
socioemotional assessment, 255
in special education, 256
training of examiners, 256, 260, 294-295
validity of assessments, 55, 105-106, 196, 228-229, 247, 254
Evaluation, defined, 264
Everyday Mathematics, 118
Executive functioning, 91, 94, 95, 99, 107, 108-109, 110, 112, 113, 128
Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test, 79, 101, 120, 135, 139, 242
Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, 81
F
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence, 77
Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES), 50, 148, 285-286, 289
Family Day Care Environment Rating Scale (FDCERS), 147, 167, 176
Five LA Universal Preschool Child Outcomes Study, 292
Flanker Task, 95
Formal assessment, 71, 106, 117, 119, 137, 236-237, 272, 370, 371, 425
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Formative assessments, 43, 60, 100, 117, 118, 119, 147, 148, 149, 167, 336, 369, 371, 372, 425
Foundation for Child Development, 447
Function/Activities of Daily Living, assessment instruments, 82
G
Galileo System for the Electronic Management of Learning, 121, 123, 128, 129, 132, 135, 137, 138, 139
Games as Measurement for Early Self-Control (GAMES), 120, 121, 123, 130
General knowledge, 58, 87, 107
instruments, 133-135
Generalizability theory, 200
Genetic/metabolic screening, 64-65
Global functioning, 17
Goal 1 Early Childhood Assessments Resource Group, 38
Goals 2000, 48
Good Start, Grow Smart initiative, 47, 49, 52-53, 348, 437-438, 446
Government Performance and Results Act, 1, 19
Growth Charts, 120
Guidelines.
See also Standards
developmental outcome measures, 5-6, 348-349
domains, 5, 348-349
government responsibility, 372-373
health care providers’ role, 369
implementing guidance, 369-374
instrument selection and
implementation, 6-8, 352-354
of professional organizations, 37-39
program administrators’ role, 371-372
purposeful assessments, 5, 345-346
rationales for, 342-345, 346-348, 349-351, 354-356
researchers’ role, 374
system of assessment, 8-12, 356-360
teachers’ role, 369-370
H
Head Start, 2, 18, 45, 156, 302
approaches to learning in, 99, 100
assessment practices, 52, 53, 54, 110, 327, 328, 430
Child Outcomes Framework, 46, 49-52, 97, 184, 326, 327, 445
Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES), 50, 148, 285-286, 289
Impact Study, 112, 148, 289
learning standards, 88
National Reporting System, 20, 23, 47, 49, 53-55, 201, 273, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 327, 430
Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, 23
performance measures, 51, 322, 430
Pyramid of Services, 49, 50, 51
reauthorization, 55
State Collaboration Offices, 438
University Partnership Measurement Development Grants Program, 105
Head Start Act, 49
Head to Toe Task, 95
Health care providers
assessment of infants and toddlers, 64
implementing guidance, 369
Hearing
impairment, and assessment validity, 274, 296
screening, 29, 30, 66, 255, 262, 263 n.2, 363
High/Scope Child Observation Record (COR), 33, 121, 124, 129, 133, 135, 138, 139, 172, 333, 335
High Scope/Perry Preschool Project, 111
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High-stakes assessment, 27.
See also Accountability
defined, 2-3 n.1, 425
guidelines for using, 7, 10, 296, 353, 355, 358, 373
reliability and validity, 283
systemic approach, 337
unintended or inappropriate uses of data, 284, 286, 337, 355-356, 358, 373
unintended or undesirable consequences, 195
Home environments
and academic and social outcomes, 155
assessing, 149, 150-155, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173
basic needs and safety monitoring provided, 151, 152
cognitive stimulation, 146, 151-152, 153-154
primary caregiver-child interactions, 152-153
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME), 154-155, 174
Home visiting programs, 18, 63, 111-112, 145-146, 149, 154
I
Implementing assessments.
See also Administration of assessments
cost analysis, 97, 297-298
determining and communicating purpose, 281, 282-284, 291, 292-293, 296-297, 341-342
following up on administration, 33, 296-298
guidelines, 6-8, 352-354
parental consent, 284-285
preparing for administration, 282-286
protecting data, 286
rationale for guidelines, 349-351
standardization in, 283
training assessors, 33, 285-286
using information from assessments, 19-20, 296-297
Indirect assessments.
See also Observational measures
adverse consequences, 3
Individual-focused assessments, 29-30
Individualized education programs, 86
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 47, 75, 251, 255, 261, 263, 264, 266, 267, 271, 280, 332, 334, 369
Infant and toddler assessments
cognitive skills, 108, 110, 113
contexts for, 63-64, 67 n.1, 168
developmental, 2, 65, 70-72, 73, 110, 261
purposes, 62-63, 74
system approach, 75-76
Infant Characteristics Questionnaire, 83
Infant Development Inventory, 77
Infant habituation, 69, 108, 110
Infant Health and Development Project, 111
Infant Monitoring System, 77
Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale-Revised (ITERS-R), 147, 168, 176, 334
Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA), 81, 125, 126
Informal assessments, 72-73, 119, 137, 252, 425
Inhibitory control, 100, 109, 110, 128
Instruments for assessment.
See also Selecting assessment tools;
individual instruments
for accountability, 39-40, 367-368
adaptation of tools developed for other purposes, 39-40, 100
appraisal stage, 190
approaches to learning, 128-129
availability, 118
basic considerations, 361-363
cognitive skills, 77-78, 130-132
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development, 186-190, 205-213, 361-364, 367-368
diagnostic, 78, 79, 80, 363-364
by domain, 71, 77-84, 87
English language learners, 54, 100, 172-173, 247, 251-255, 257
functional evaluation, 82
information resources, 215, 449-453
observational, 120-144, 157-173
outcomes related to, 160, 161
for planning instruction and monitoring progress, 33
of quality of environment, 152-177
research needs, 361-364
for screening, 74, 77-84, 122-127, 363
social and emotional development, 81-82, 122-127
temperament screening, 83
validity, 74
Intelligence tests, 68, 110, 111, 112, 113, 168, 234, 239, 245, 253
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health—Children and Youth Version (ICF-CY), 276
Interpreting and using scores, 3, 17.
See also Bias in asessments;
Validity of assessments
for accountability purposes, 35, 39, 40, 355-356
automated analysis tools, 101
conditions for, 19-20
extrapolation, 188
guidelines for, 37-39
of infant-toddler assessments, 63
program quality information linked to, 319
Iron deficiency screening, 67, 76
K
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), 113, 130, 131, 137, 142, 242, 245
Knowledge. See General knowledge
L
“Labeling” vulnerable children, 46
Language and literacy, 16-17, 30.
See also Phonological awareness;
Reading;
Vocabulary
accountability assessments, 102
associations with important outcomes, 66, 103-104
cognitive skills and, 110
constructs, 58
delays/disorders, 101, 102, 106
diagnostic testing, 101, 102, 106
discourse skills, 101, 102, 103
domain defined, 79, 100-103, 139-144
early learning guidelines, 49
English language learners, 104-105, 172-173, 248-249, 251-252, 291-292
instructional and intervention planning, 32, 104
instruments/tools for assessment, 59, 79, 101, 102, 106, 139-144, 162, 165-166, 168-169, 172-173, 174-177
learning behaviors and, 98
length of assessment, 289-290
malleability, 104
measures of, 102, 105, 106
minority children, 237, 242
quality of learning environment, 17, 104, 148, 154, 155, 157, 158, 161, 162, 164, 165-166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 174-177
receptive language, 66, 101
research-related assessment, 101, 106
standards of learning, 52-53, 89
testing all children, 104-106, 242
training examiners, 102
transfer theory, 248-249
validity of scores, 101
Language Assessment Scales (LAS), 252
Language minority. See English language learners
Large-scale assessments, 40, 254, 259-260, 266-267, 285
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Lead screening, 29, 30, 68
Learning disabilities, 34, 255, 263 n.2
Learning standards. See Approaches to learning;
Early childhood education standards;
Standards
Lexington Developmental Scales, 77
Limited English proficient. See English language learners
Literacy. See Language and literacy
Literacy Activities Rating Scale, 166
Literacy Environment Checklist, 166
M
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories, 40, 79, 101, 105, 139, 142
Mathematica Policy Research, 201, 202, 203, 204, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 293, 295, 450-451
Mathematics
and academic achievement, 116
algebraic concepts, 115-116, 118
developmentally appropriate, 171
domain defined, 107, 114-116, 136-138
early learning standards, 49, 116
geometry, 114-115, 117, 118
importance, 116
instruments for assessment, 118, 136-138, 170-171, 175, 176
language-oriented problems, 154
learning-related behaviors and, 98, 99
mathematical reasoning, 116, 170-171
measurement skills, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 130, 170-171
measures of, 110, 117-118
number sense, 114, 117, 118, 165, 170
quality of learning environment, 157, 158, 161, 164, 170-171, 175, 176
testing all children, 116-117
U.S. students’ performance, 116
vocabulary and, 58
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Ability, 78
Measurement error, 187, 191, 198-199, 202, 204, 235, 317.
See also Bias in assessments;
Construct-irrelevant variance;
Reliability of assessments
Measures of developmental outcomes. See Developmental outcome measures
Memory, 92, 98, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 130, 131, 193
Michigan School Readiness Program, 45, 447
Minority children.
See also English language learners
access to assessment, 76
appropriateness of assessment, 3, 235-240, 243, 244, 259
bias in assessment, 233-246
cognitive assessment, 242
fairness concerns, 23, 193, 206, 210, 234-235, 243
inclusion in assessments, 320
mathematics testing, 114
oral learning traditions, 236
in special education, 239
validity of assessments for, 96, 100, 112, 240
Modified Checklist of Autism in Toddlers, 81
Motor development, 17.
See also Physical well-being and motor development
instruments, 80
Motor Quotient, 80
Movement Assessment of Infants, 80
Mullen Scales of Early Learning, 78
Multitiered models, 34, 264
My Teaching Partner, 147
N
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 337
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), 33, 38, 39, 45, 161, 162, 258, 268, 334
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National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education, 38, 268
National Association of School Psychologists, 250, 268
National Association of Test Directors, 246
National Center for Education Statistics, 36
National Child Care Information Center, 107
National Children’s Study, 451
National Early Childhood Accountability Task Force, 24, 39, 302, 322, 324
National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, 71, 452
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 266
National Education Goals Panel, 4, 38, 48, 50, 58, 86, 97, 282, 347
National Head Start Association, 23, 55
National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER), 71, 439, 452-453
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 110, 152, 153, 162, 170
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Child Supplement, 287
National Registry Alliance, 318
National Research Council, 2, 20, 21, 24, 48-49, 431
Naturalistic assessment. See Authentic assessment
NCHS/NLSY Questionnaire, 77
Nebraska, assessment system, 332-335
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, 68, 69, 70
NEPSY, 120, 128, 129, 130, 139
New Jersey, Abbott Preschool Program, 335-336, 351, 354
Newborn Individualized Development Care and Assessment Program, 70
Newborns
developmental assessment, 68-70
hearing screening, 66
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), 1, 16, 19, 34, 35, 302, 307-308, 314, 315
Norm-referenced tests, 40, 50 n.1, 112, 197, 237-238, 254, 259-260, 264-265, 270, 271-272, 273, 279, 350, 423, 426, 427
Normative development. See Threats to normative development
Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training, 84
Nutritional deficiency, 67
O
Obesity, 18, 88, 120
Observation Measure of Language and Literacy Instruction (OMLIT), 168-169, 176
Observational measures
for accountability, 147-148, 149, 167, 201-202, 203, 204
classroom environments, 146, 154, 156-157, 158-159, 165-166, 168-169, 173, 175, 176, 334
of environmental quality, 63, 146-150
home environment, 152-153, 154-155, 174
instruments/tools, 120-144, 157-173, 201, 297, 351
language and literacy instruction, 168-169, 176
length of assessment, 150, 160, 166, 169
and professional development, 146-147, 149
purposes, 146-150, 201-202, 203-204
reliability, 149-150, 157, 203, 204, 268, 283, 334-335
research needs, 204, 364
selecting, 146
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for special needs children, 274
strengths and weaknesses, 203-205
training assessors, 157, 203, 204
validity, 150, 157, 164-165
Observation Record of the Caregiving Environment (ORCE), 169-170, 176
Office of Civil Rights, 251
Office of Special Education Programs, 328, 333, 348
Oral Language Development Scale, 292
Otoacoustic emissions, 66
Outcome measures. See Developmental outcome measures
P
Parent-child interaction, 104, 151, 155, 174
Parental/family involvement, 38, 94, 159, 171, 172, 177, 251, 260, 265, 268-269, 287
Parenting skills, 149
Parents’ Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS), 77, 78
Partners for Inclusion model, 147
Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 80
Peabody Individual Achievement Tests, 133, 136, 140, 24
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), 40, 79, 101, 139, 154, 166, 236, 242, 252, 291
Peen Interactive Peer Play, 242
Performance assessments, 11, 133, 213, 224-226, 238, 254-255, 264, 335-336, 359, 424, 426.
See also Authentic assessment;
Classroom environments;
individual instruments
Pervasive Developmental Disorders Screening Test-II (PDDST-II), 82
Pew Foundation, 39, 302
Phenylketonuria screening, 29
Phonological awareness, 101, 102, 103, 106, 109, 110, 132, 140, 154, 172, 248, 311
Physical well-being and motor development
consensus, 88
domain defined, 87-88, 120-121
screening instruments, 80, 87, 120-121
Pictorial Assessment of Temperament (PAT), 83
Planning and monitoring children’s progress, 1, 32-33, 43
Policies on child development
context for assessment, 15-20
positive ethics, 16
Portfolio assessments, 133, 136, 140, 201, 205, 314, 350, 370, 426
Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study, 266
Pre-Language Assessment Scale (Pre-LAS), 252, 292
Prenatal Early Infancy Project-Elmira site, 112
Preschool Assessment of Attachment, 84
Preschool Classroom Mathematics Inventory (PCMI), 170-171, 176
Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Study (PCER), 289, 290
Preschool Language Assessment (PLA), 102
Preschool Language Scale (PLS), 79, 143, 242, 252
Preschool Learning Behavior Scale, 100
Preschool Program Quality Assessment (PQA), 171-172, 177
Preschool Screening System, 77
Primary caregiver-child interactions, 64, 69, 150, 151, 152-153
Primary Test of Cognitive Skills (PTCS), 131
Professional development.
See also Training of assessors
Head Start teachers, 148
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observational assessment in, 146-147, 149, 167, 171
state initiatives, 332, 334-335
systems perspective, 317-319, 322, 332, 334-335
Program
accreditation and licensing, 325, 334
administrators’ role in implementing guidelines, 371-372
effectiveness evaluation, 18-19, 35-36, 39, 54, 85, 86, 148, 197-198, 201, 204, 259, 297, 355, 367-368
impact evaluation, 36, 148
performance assessment, 2, 34-37, 39-41, 266-267;
see also Accountability
quality standards, 44-45, 319-320, 325, 365
Progress monitoring, 2, 8, 18, 19, 31, 75, 85, 229, 283
academic achievement standards and, 308
appropriateness of assessment, 39, 86, 148, 197, 259, 297
defined, 265-266, 426
early childhood education standards and, 43, 44, 224
English language learners, 255, 292, 293
Head Start practices, 52, 53, 54-55, 430
implementing, 372, 374, 375
maps, 315
outcome measures, 86, 329
program evaluation compared, 35, 344
research needs, 364
RTI approach, 33-34
special needs children, 262, 264, 265-266, 267, 280, 330
state initiatives, 329, 447
tools for assessment, 101, 106, 118, 135, 201, 215-216, 224, 255, 264, 336, 424, 425
using assessment data, 32-33, 39, 280, 286, 314, 326, 344, 372
Psychometric issues in assessment, 23, 119.
See also Reliability of assessments;
Validity of assessments
abbreviation or adaptation of tests, 40
bias testing, 235, 240, 243-244
cognitive skills, 107-108, 112, 113
direct tests, 370, 371, 372
guidelines, 6, 271, 350, 352, 370
information on instruments, 87, 449, 451, 452, 453
high-stakes vs. low-stakes conditions, 195
measuring quantitative change, 224-225
precision, 263
research needs, 361, 364
special populations, 96, 112, 243-244
standards of evidence, 3, 225, 243-244
Purpose of assessments.
See also Accountability;
Diagnostic testing;
Progress monitoring;
Program, performance assessment;
Screening
and appropriate use of assessments, 27, 259, 283, 341-342, 344, 433
community-focused screening, 29-30
determining and communicating, 3, 282-284
diagnostic testing, 30
eligibility testing, 31
functional level, 2, 29-31
guidelines on, 5, 37-39, 345-346
importance of purposefulness, 2, 18, 313
individual-focused screening, 29
in infant-toddler period, 62, 74
intervention and instruction planning, 2, 31-34, 39, 69, 70, 85, 201, 222-226, 259, 264-265, 283
rationale for guidelines, 342-345
readiness testing, 30-31
research-related, 2, 34, 37, 266-267
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response to intervention, 30, 33-34, 364-365
social benchmarking, 36-37
special needs children, 262-267
and uses of assessment, 18, 22, 342-346
Q
Qualistar Early Learning Quality Rating and Improvement System, 173
Quality Interventions for Early Care and Education (QUINCE), 147
Quality of assessments.
See also Bias in assessments;
Reliability of assessments;
Validity of assessments
measurement choices and, 200-205
Quality of environment.
See also Center-based environments;
Classroom environments;
Home environments
appropriate assessment of, 320
and cognitive skills, 108, 148, 151, 153-154, 170
and developmental outcomes, 17-18, 64, 86, 95, 104, 108
English language learners, 172-173
importance, 145
instruments, 147, 152-177
observational measures, 63, 146-150
strategy for assessing programs, 173
systems perspective, 319-320
Quality of Instruction in Language and Literacy, 169, 174
The Quick Test, 79
R
RAND Corporation, 111
Ratings of Parent-Child Interactions, 174
Read Aloud Profile, 169
Readiness for school, 53
assessments, 1, 30-31, 85, 214, 226, 227, 325, 426
consequences of assessments, 227
design of programs, 1
language and literacy, 100-101
learning-related behavior and, 97
National Education Goals, 4, 347
physical fitness and, 88
program evaluation, 226
social and emotional, 90
Reading.
See also Language and literacy
cognitive stimulation, 153
English language learners, 252
learning-related behavior and, 98, 99
memory and, 110
readiness for, 30-31, 168
vocabulary and, 103
Reading First, 31-32
Receptive Expressive Emergent Language Scale (REEL), 79
Recognition and Response model, 34
Reliability of assessments.
See also Bias in assessments
age of children and, 72, 73-74, 119, 219
alternate forms coefficient, 199
automated analysis tools and, 101
checks/checking, 7, 11, 353, 359
coefficients, 198-200
defined, 427
evidence of, 182
inferences, 179, 281
internal consistency coefficient, 198
length of assessment and, 288
measures, 59, 73, 95, 96-97, 119, 149-150, 211, 212, 281
monitoring, 203, 353
National Reporting System, 54
by observation, 149-150, 157, 203, 204, 268, 283, 334-335
outcomes, 244
purpose of assessment and, 283
quantifying, 182, 198-200, 427
score and inter-rater, 323, 334, 427
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Spearman-Brown formula, 199
split-halves coefficient, 199
standardized tests, 40
for subgroups, 219-220, 291, 366, 370, 371
test-retest coefficient, 198-199, 427
tools, 6, 21, 23, 119, 145, 181, 194, 197, 211, 212, 219, 253, 322, 349, 350, 352, 362-363
training of assessors and, 150, 157, 203, 204, 285, 364
Reporting of results
background information, 316-317
confidentiality and privacy safeguards, 317
interpretive material, 316
NCLB basis, 314, 315
progress map, 315-316
samples of children’s work, 316
systems perspective, 3, 305-306, 314-317
uncertainty in results, 317
Research
accountability and program evaluation instruments, 367-368
agenda, 12, 360-368
assessment processes, 364-365
bias in instruments, 365-366
committee’s approach for this study, 22-25, 431-434
diagnostic testing, 363-364
instrument development, 361-364
program quality standards, 365
special populations, 253, 256-258, 259, 365-367
uses of assessment for, 28, 34, 37, 101, 106, 148-149
Response to intervention (RTI) approach, 30, 33-34, 263-264, 364-365
Reynell Developmental Language Scales, 79, 141, 143
S
Sampling error, 188, 207, 211, 212
Science, 107, 136-138, 157, 158
Screening
appropriateness of assessment for, 360
community-focused, 29-30
contexts for, 63-64
defined, 427
developmental, 68-72, 87, 262
difficulties with young children, 72-74
implementing, 283
individual-focused, 29
infants and toddlers, 62-64, 70-72
instruments, by domain, 77-84
limitations in effectiveness, 74-76
newborns, 66, 68-70
principles of good programs, 63
research needs, 363
special needs children, 262
for threats to normative development, 64-68
universal, 33-34
uses of assessments, 62-63
Screening Tool for Autism in Two-Year-Olds (STAT), 82
Selecting assessment tools, 4, 431
for accountability purposes, 40-41, 102, 201, 226-231
accuracy and quality issues, 2, 181, 210
committee approach, 22-25
guidelines on, 6-8, 37-39, 352-354
for local needs, 214-222
for multiple related entities, 222-226
in program evaluation context, 40-41, 226-231
rationale for guidelines, 349-351
Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development, 79, 141
Shape Stroop measure, 113
Simon says test, 113
Slosson Intelligence Test, 77
Snack delay test, 113
Snapshot of Classroom Activities, 169
Social benchmarking, 36-37, 40
Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), 82
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Social Competence and Behavioral Evaluation (SCBE), 126, 127
Social consequences of assessment
bias in assessment and, 195-196, 239-240
scenario, 227
Social Skills Rating Scale, 100, 122, 128, 129
Social studies, 50, 85, 107, 135, 440
Socioemotional development.
See also Approaches to learning
behavior problems, 54 n.4, 89, 91, 92-93, 94, 95, 99, 365
consensus, 90
constructs, 58, 95, 96, 113
domain defined, 89
early learning guidelines, 89
home environment and, 146, 148, 150-151
importance in practice and policy, 50-51, 89-90
infant assessment, 62, 69
instruments, 59, 71, 164, 166, 167, 170, 173-177, 362-363
and later development, 90-94
malleability, 94-95
measurement issues, 95, 242
measures of, 91, 95, 96-97
minority children, 242, 245
nutritional deficiency and, 67
quality of environment and, 164, 166, 167, 170, 174-177
reliability and validity of tests, 96-97, 194
research needs, 362-363
screening instruments, 81-82, 122-127
self-regulation, 70, 89, 90, 92, 93-94, 95, 96, 108, 123, 311, 365
social competence, 89, 91-92, 96, 108, 126, 127, 148, 164, 166, 167, 170, 194
testing all children, 96, 242, 255
Special education, 31, 153, 239, 252, 255, 256, 261, 262-263, 264, 267, 271, 325, 326, 327, 328, 330, 348, 367, 369
Special needs children
accommodations for, 8, 40, 250, 254, 259, 260, 267, 272, 273, 276-279, 295-296, 298, 330-331, 353, 367
accountability-related assessments, 267, 270, 272, 279
administration of assessments, 269-270, 272-273, 295-296
appropriateness of assessment for, 3, 4, 38, 40, 271, 280, 283
challenges in assessment, 270-279
construct-irrelevant skills, 274-275
developmental assessment, 76, 271, 369
diagnostic testing, 262-264
domain-based assessments, 274-276
eligibility determinations, 262-264, 271-272
functional outcomes approach, 275-276
inclusion in assessments, 36, 40, 266-267, 270, 273, 295-296, 320, 330-331
infants and toddlers, 261
instruments/tools, 273-274, 276-279
intervention or instruction planning, 1, 264-265
“labeling” concerns, 46
large-scale assessments, 40, 266-267, 273, 279
outcome measures, 275-276
population characteristics, 261
principles of assessment, 267-270
progress monitoring, 263, 265-266, 267
purposes of assessment, 260, 262-267
reporting outcomes, 47
research needs, 367
research-related assessments, 266-267, 272
response to intervention approach, 263-264
screening, 262
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universal design principles, 276-279, 353
validity of assessments, 261, 270
Standardization
in administration of tests, 40, 74-75, 287
bias in samples and methods and, 237-238, 241, 243, 253, 271
instructions and scoring, 227
samples of tests, 237-238, 243, 271
test administration, 40, 74-75
Standardized tests, 28, 40, 101, 110, 111, 118, 187, 202, 236-237, 238, 254-255, 259-260, 270-272, 275, 278, 426, 427
Standards.
See also Guidelines and accountability, 307
achievement (performance), 308
for assessment, 250-251, 309, 323, 350
content, 308, 311, 439-444
defined, 308-309
by funding source, 326-327
K-12 learning standards, 1, 44, 87, 88, 89, 445-447
learning performances approach, 309, 310-311, 313
learning progressions approach, 309-310, 311, 312
NCLB framework, 307-308
organizing around big ideas, 311
and reporting assessment results, 314
state early childhood education standards, 16, 45-46, 116, 327-338, 437-447
systems perspective, 8, 304, 305, 307-313, 335
Standards-based assessments, 371, 427, 431
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 113, 130, 131, 134, 136, 141, 242
State.
See also individual states
assessment systems, 44, 161, 167, 328-336
early childhood education standards, 16, 45-46, 116, 335, 437-448
K-12 learning standards, 87, 88, 445-447
prekindergarten programs, 18-19, 44, 45, 161, 167, 302, 322, 326, 327, 328, 431
quality rating systems for early care and education, 147
Strange Situation test, 84, 122
Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, 110, 152, 153, 162, 170
Sulzby Classification Schemes: Emergent Storybook Reading, 140
Sulzby Familiar Storybook Reading scale, 102
Summative assessments, 60, 117, 118, 133, 136, 140, 149, 427
Supports for Early Literacy Assessment (SELA), 170, 172, 177
Supports for English Language Learners Classroom Assessment (SELLCA), 172-173, 177
System of assessment
accountability assessment in, 35-36
assessment approaches, 8, 75-76, 205-206, 305, 313, 333-334, 335-336
coherence in, 339-340, 341
components, 331-332
cost of implementing, 297-298, 322
current landscape, 324-328
development and learning opportunities, 9, 306, 319-320, 339
environmental ratings, 148
features of systems, 302-303
feedback loops, 303-304
guidelines, 8-12, 356-360
importance of systematicity, 2, 75-76, 302-304, 336-340
inclusiveness, 9, 76, 306, 320-321, 330-331
infrastructure, 230-231, 304-324
monitoring and evaluation, 9, 148, 306, 322-324
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professional development, 9, 306, 317-319, 322, 332, 334-335, 339
program quality assessment, 226-231, 334
rationale for guidelines, 354-356
reporting procedures, 9, 230-231, 305-306, 314-317, 339-340
resources, 9, 306, 321-322
scenarios for developing, 222-233
standards, 8, 304, 305, 307-313, 335, 339
state efforts, 328-336
T
Tandem mass spectrometry, 65
Teacher-child relationships, 91-92, 95, 147, 157, 160-161, 163, 164, 165, 171, 257, 287, 372
Teacher Rating Scale, 100
Temperament, screening instruments, 81, 83
Temperament and Atypical Behavior Scale (TABS), 81
Test de Vocabulario en Imágenes Peabody, 252
Test of Early Language Development (TELD), 79, 102, 141, 143, 159
Test of Early Mathematics Ability (TEMA), 136, 137
Test of Early Reading Ability (TERA), 140, 144
Test of Language Dominance (TOLD), 102, 139
Testing. See Diagnostic testing
Threats to normative development
genetic/metabolic screening, 64-65
iron deficiency screening, 67
lead screening, 68
newborn hearing screening, 66
vision screening, 66-67
Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (Carey Scales), 83
Toddler-Parent Mealtime Behavior Questionnaire, 120
Toddlers. See Infant and toddler assessments
Tools of the Mind curriculum, 94, 95, 99, 335
Tower of Hanoi, 128, 130
Training of assessors, 3, 33, 64, 102, 150, 256, 260, 285-286, 291, 294-295, 364.
See also Professional development
U
Universal design principles, 8, 33-34, 276-279, 353, 366, 374
Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT), 253
University of Nebraska, 215
U.S. Department of Education, 23, 249, 267, 271, 333, 348
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 52-53, 430, 431
Office of Head Start, 2, 20, 450
U.S. Government Accountability Office, 23, 54, 55
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 66, 67
Use of assessments. See Appropriate use of assessments;
Purpose of assessments
V
Validity argument, 187
Validity of assessments.
See also Bias in assessments
for accountability, 40, 54-55, 198
as argument, 186-191
consequence of use and, 194-196
consistency of assessment. See Reliability of assessments
construct, 185-186, 193, 197, 236-237, 243, 250, 254, 255, 274-275
contemporary views of evidence, 192-196
content, 100, 184-185, 192, 193, 235-236, 244, 250, 254, 255
convergent/divergent evidence, 194
criterion model, 183, 211
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defined, 181, 427
external variables and, 101, 193-194, 197, 203
generalization, 187, 210-213
history of evidence, 182-186
instrument-specific, 67, 70
integrated views of, 186, 313
internal structure and, 100, 193, 197
interpretive argument, 187, 188-190
from intervention data, 194
by observation, 150, 157
plausible alternative hypotheses, 190-191
of program quality, 196-198
psychometric issues, 4, 23, 40, 96, 181, 194, 235, 240, 243, 370, 371, 372
response processes and, 192-193, 205, 364-365
social consequences and, 195-196, 239-240
standardization and, 187, 237, 250, 254
treatment studies, 193-194
trinitarian model, 184-186
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-II, 82
Vineland Social-Emotional Early Childhood Scales (SEEC), 121, 127
Vineland Social-Emotional Maturity Scale, 81
Vision screening, 29, 66-67, 75-76, 255, 262
Vocabulary, 16-17, 32, 40, 53, 58, 79, 98, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107, 116, 135, 139, 142, 146, 154, 158, 166, 215, 236, 242, 248, 252, 286-287, 291, 292-293
Vygotskian play-based preschool curriculum, 94, 99
W
Wechsler Intel ligence Scale for Children, 113, 245, 253
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), 113, 130, 133, 141, 242, 245
Welfare reform policies, 153
Westat, 24, 53-54
Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ-III) Tests of Cognitive Abilities, 113, 118, 121, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136, 137, 139, 140, 144, 242, 252
Woodcock-Johnson-Revised Tests of Cognitive Ability (WJ-R COG), 253
Work Sampling for Head Start (WSHS) measure, 119
Work Sampling System (WSS), 33, 119, 120, 122, 124, 135, 138, 139, 297
Y
Ypsilanti Carnegie Infant Education project, 111
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