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4
Screening Young Children
In this chapter we review procedures for the screening of young children for both health-related and developmental purposes. We discuss the uses of assessment for infants and toddlers and the contexts in which they are assessed. We describe various screens performed on infants and toddlers to detect possible physiological, sensorineural, (micro)nutritional, and environmental threats to healthy development, and then we review assessments of developmental status and their use for screening purposes. We discuss two sorts of challenges to effective screening: the difficulties of assessing very young children and the societal conditions that need to be in place. Finally, we present a set of summary tables of some of the assessment instruments available for use with children age 3 years and younger.
We realize that this review is not exhaustive. We have focused on screening for conditions that have implications for educational outcomes, in line with our charge, the primary audience for this report, and acknowledging the limitations on the committee’s resources. The issues central to the committee’s charge pertain chiefly to instruments used with children in early childhood care and educational programs, so our major focus was on the preschool age group, which forms the majority of the children served by these programs. For the same reasons, we have focused our discussion here on screening rather than on in-depth diagnostic
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assessment for infants and toddlers, although we do list widely used diagnostic instruments in our tables. The diagnostic instruments are most often used by specialists after screening-based referral. In lieu of more extensive discussion, we provide references to recent reviews of infant and toddler instruments in which more detailed information can be found.
ASSESSING INFANTS AND TODDLERS
The traditional model for assessment of infants in the first several months of life was primarily medical. It focused on using assessments for pediatric appraisal of normative physical and neuromotor development. Attention to behavioral and psychosocial factors was secondary, although most pediatricians acknowledged the importance of developmental factors over those of a purely physical or biological nature. Over the past half-century, behavioral development has become an integral part of regular pediatric evaluation, and pediatricians routinely provide clinical information on behavioral, cognitive, and psychosocial factors, thus providing a more comprehensive picture of each child’s overall growth and development. The integration of biophysical examination with cognitive and socioemotional assessment links early infant assessment with the developmental outcomes of interest in this report.
Uses of Assessment
The uses and purposes of assessment in the infant-toddler period determine to some extent the domains assessed. One source suggests four purposes of infant assessment (Wyly, 1997):
to identify infants who may be at risk for developmental delay,
to diagnose the presence and extent of developmental problems,
to identify an infant’s specific abilities and skills, and
to determine appropriate intervention strategies.
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This list does not include many purposes typical of assessment for older preschoolers, such as evaluation of intervention strategies, prediction of future competencies, or assessment of skills that are fundamental for success in a classroom environment, such as ease of gaining the child’s attention and ability to sustain it. The focus is on the identification of possible developmental problems at an early age—in part, we argue, because of the relatively undifferentiated nature of developmental organization in early infancy and the associated difficulty of making precise predictions to later abilities. We note also that in spite of wide agreement that screening and monitoring of the development of these youngest children is important, pediatricians still do not fully agree on the most important domains to measure or the best measures to use (McCormick, 2008).
Most of the assessment conducted in this age range is actually screening to identify potential problems, to be followed by more definitive diagnostic assessment. The principles of a good screening program are thus relevant (Wilson and Jungner, 1968):
a valid and reliable measure,
acceptability to the population being screened and their parents or guardians,
facilities to conduct the screening,
facilities to ensure follow-up and treatment, and
cost-effectiveness.
Contexts and Assessment
As noted, assessment of infants and toddlers often takes place in pediatric settings, with screening as a primary goal. Screening may also take place in early childhood education and intervention settings, such as Early Head Start and home visiting programs. Interpreting results from such assessments must take into account the effects of a wide variety of inputs into the child’s development, for example, safety of the residence, care practices of parents and other caregivers, exposure to substances that might hamper normal development, and consistency of care settings, as well as information about the infant’s state of health and alertness during the assessment.
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There is an explicit assumption that child care practices, caregiver stability, and infant-caregiver attachment provide the basis for optimal social and cognitive development. However, for many children, including those under age 3, substantial variability exists in the types, extent, and number of forms of out-of-home care available (Johnson, 2005); this variability may be even greater for children at risk of developmental delay, who may also be eligible to receive community-based early intervention services (Widerstrom, 1999). Understanding the quality of these variable settings, as well as the impact of the child’s exposure to different settings, is crucial in interpreting child-based outcomes.
Because of the variety of the settings in which infants and toddlers are cared for, the equivalent of the older child’s classroom as a place for administering developmental assessments is available only for the minority of children now reached by infant and toddler intervention and education programs like Early Head Start. However, because the vast majority of children under age 4 are monitored by pediatricians or family practitioners (Freed, Nahra, and Wheeler, 2004) and regular developmental assessment is recommended for well-child care, the pediatric setting thus becomes the most likely site for infant and toddler screening. This fact has implications for the training of pediatric personnel, for the design of organized data systems useful in ensuring that all children are screened for developmental problems, and for an integrated service delivery system that spans medical and educational settings.
ASSESSING THREATS TO NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT
We focus here on threats that are susceptible to prevention or amenable to postnatal intervention. There is a much longer list of factors associated with increased risk to normative development, ranging from child-specific (low birth weight, prematurity) to societal (poverty) factors; the ones discussed here are merely a selection.
Genetic/Metabolic Screening
Currently, every newborn in the United States is screened at birth for certain genetic conditions and metabolic disorders,
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although the number of conditions varies by state (Kaye and Committee on Genetics, 2006; Lloyd-Puryear et al., 2007). Many of these conditions result in significant nervous system damage, leading to severe developmental delays, which early treatment may prevent or ameliorate (Kaye and Committee on Genetics, 2006). In the past, such screening depended on chemical analyses of a spot of blood taken at the time of discharge from the hospital nursery, limiting the number of conditions for which screening could be done. More recently, the use of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) has greatly expanded the number of conditions for which screening is possible (Schulze, 2003). Although this technology is expensive to implement, its use has been argued to be very cost-effective (Carroll and Downs, 2005). Moreover, since neonatal metabolic screening has been so well incorporated into care following birth, it is generally well accepted by both providers and parents.
Estimating the effect of newborn genetic/metabolic screening is made difficult by several factors (Botkin, 2004; Kaye and Committee on Genetics, 2006). First, when newborn screening programs were initiated, the assumption was that an affected gene led to disease. Advances in modern genetics have revealed that many mutations may occur in a single gene, not all of them leading to significant disease, and it often is unclear whether treatment is needed. Second, the expanded MS/MS techniques reveal biochemical abnormalities that may or may not be associated with specific disease states, so the natural history of some of these abnormalities is unknown. Infant maturation may affect detection; for example, congenital hypothyroidism may be difficult to detect in preterm infants. Moreover, these tests, while having some power of detection, are not a proxy for functional outcomes related to behavior. The prevention of developmental disability requires a system of detection, validation, and treatment, and the treatments may be onerous, thereby affecting compliance. Finally, many more infants test positive on the screening tests than have the disease, and assessing these infants adds to the costs without preventing disability. In addition to the costs, simply identifying the infants who test falsely positive may have unintended consequences on their development (Fisher and Welch, 1999; Newman, Browner, and Hulley, 1990). Despite these concerns, neonatal metabolic screening has proven to be an effective screening process.
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Newborn Hearing Screening
Most states have introduced neonatal screening for congenital hearing loss (Kaye and Committee on Genetics, 2006). Such screening has been made possible by the development of relatively portable, computerized equipment. One approach, automated auditory brainstem response, a variant on electroencephalography, detects within 10 milliseconds the speed and amplitude of 5-7 component waves from the auditory nerve through structures along the auditory pathway in response to specific sounds. The screening test consists of soft clicks delivered through earphones and the detection of an auditory brainstem response through electrodes on the infant’s forehead. Another approach, otoacoustic emissions, involves using a tiny microphone to detect the sounds made by the outer hair cells of the cochlea (National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management, 2007).
Proponents argue that children with hearing loss who receive intensive early intervention do better on school performance measures and have improved receptive language and less developmental delay (Blake and Hall, 1990; Moeller, 2000; Yoshinaga-Itano et al., 1998). However, unlike genetic/metabolic screening, in which specimens are sent to a central laboratory, offering greater control over technical quality, newborn hearing screening is conducted in the newborn nursery by a variety of personnel using a variety of protocols (Kaye and Committee on Genetics, 2006). The evidence does not appear to favor one protocol over another, and some hearing-impaired infants are still being missed (Gravel et al., 1999). Thus, a 2001 review of newborn hearing screening by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concluded that the evidence at that time was incomplete as to the benefit of newborn hearing screening, but an updated review is in progress (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 2001).
Vision Screening
Vision screening is a recurrent and routine part of the pediatric physical examination. Early assessments focus on ensuring that there is a clear pathway from the front of the eye to the retina, where images are received; that the connection between the retina
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and the relevant part of the brain is intact, indicated by pupillary responses to light; and that the eyes move in a coordinated fashion. Between ages 2 and 4 years, it becomes possible to test for visual acuity—that is, the size of objects that can be seen at certain distances (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1996).1 The goal of these procedures is to reduce poor vision or risk factors that lead to abnormal visual development. Recent evidence supports the effectiveness of intensive screening for the reduction of amblyopia and improved visual acuity. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concluded that the routine screening currently done has not been shown to be effective, although the potential benefit outweighed the minimal risk of the screening (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 2004).
Iron Deficiency Screening
A lengthy literature addresses the effect of nutritional deficiency and child development (Grantham-McGregor, 1984). Since poor nutrition and micronutrient deficiency are more likely in the context of poverty and ill health, disentangling the effect of specific nutritional deficiencies on development is sometimes difficult. However, evidence from developing and industrialized countries supports a relation between iron deficiency and poorer socioemotional, sensorimotor, and cognitive development and school performance (Lozoff et al., 2000, 2003). Recommendations for screening for iron deficiency are consistent with this body of research (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). However, substantial questions about the specificity of using blood hemoglobin levels to assess the presence of iron deficiency led the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force to conclude that the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against such screening (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 2006).
1
Acuity tests, such as Teller Acuity Cards, are available for infants and toddlers, and they can be useful for at-risk (e.g., premature) infants, but they are not suitable for general screening and good predictive validity has not been demonstrated (National Research Council, 2002).
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Lead Screening
Lead absorbed from the environment has long been recognized as a neurotoxicant, and major efforts have been undertaken to reduce environmental lead (Grandjean and Landrigan, 2006). The success of these efforts has led to a sharp decline in the blood lead levels of children in America: as of 2006, only slightly more than 1 percent had blood lead levels above the cutoff of 10 micrograms/deciliter (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007). Nonetheless, certain populations, such as minority children and those living in older housing stock, remain at risk, and thus a targeted screening strategy has been recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics (2005). Several studies have reported that children with low-level prenatal lead exposure (< 10 mg/dl) have intellectual deficits as measured by standard IQ tests (Banks, Ferrittee, and Shucard, 1997; Lanphear et al., 2000, 2002; Needleman and Gatsonis, 1990) reflected in poorer performance on specific items on the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (Brazelton and Nugent, 1995; Emory et al., 1999) and on infant intelligence at age 7 months (Emory et al., 2003; Shepherd and Fagan, 1981). The study by Emory et al. (2003) characterized the effects found as lowered optimal performance rather than an increase in impaired performance across the board.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Newborns
Developmental assessments provide useful information about overall physiological status and risk. Neurodevelopmental examinations initially focused on neurological reflexes and postural reactions that can be elicited in the newborn, which emerge and disappear within fairly specific time periods, as a means of assessing central nervous system integrity, especially early signs of cerebral palsy (Zafeieriou, 2003). Primitive reflexes are mediated by the brainstem and consist of complex, automatic movement patterns that emerge from 25 weeks of gestation and disappear by age 6 months. Postural reactions are infant responses to being held in different standardized positions and probably reflect more
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complex stimuli, such as those from joints, muscles, and other proprioceptors. Persistence of primitive reflexes and postural reactions or asymmetry in response tend to suggest central nervous system problems. In his review, however, Zafeieriou (2003) notes that there is considerable controversy about which reflexes or reactions, or combination thereof, provide the best clinical prediction. It should be noted that the major outcome being predicted is cerebral palsy.
More recently, neurodevelopmental assessment has also focused on behavioral attributes of the infant, particularly as they reflect organizational state and the ability to interact with the environment. The premise of this approach is that the infant is an active learner from birth and that his or her ability to change states or control his or her state in response to internal and external stimuli facilitates that learning. The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) evaluates the self-regulatory capacity of the newborn infant to achieve two sleep states, two awake states, and one distress state. Within states, the infant may modify his or her response to external or internal stimuli by either habituating (i.e., not responding to a stimulus) or processing information from various sensory inputs (Tronick, 1987). The items on the NBAS cluster into seven areas: habituation, motor performance (tone and maturity), range of state, regulation of state, autonomic regulation, and reflexes (Tronick, 1987). The NBAS relies on well-trained examiners, and it is unclear to what extent variations in examiner ability influence its predictive validity.
The NBAS has been used to assess the effects of a variety of prenatal exposures, including obstetric medications, recreational drug use, and environmental toxins (Tronick, 1987). It has proven sensitive to normal and abnormal variations in fetal responses to labor (Emory, Walker, and Cruz, 1982), birth weight difference independent of gestational age (Emory and Walker, 1982), and clinical conditions with known neurological and neurobehavioral consequences (Emory, Tynan, and Davé, 1989). The NBAS is also used as a tool to educate parents about the skills of their newborn infants and to improve infant-parent interactions (Beeghly et al., 1995). A meta-analysis by Das Eiden and Reifman (1996) concluded that interventions using this scale during the neonatal period have a small to moderate positive effect on the quality of later parenting.
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Using the model of the NBAS, Als et al. (2005) have developed the Assessment of Preterm Infants’ Behavior (APIB). The scale assesses what are theorized to be five interacting systems of functioning: autonomic, motor, state organization, attention, and self-regulation. Like the NBAS, the APIB forms the basis of an intervention, the Newborn Individualized Development Care and Assessment Program, intended to improve the developmental outcomes of preterm infants by teaching caregivers in the neonatal intensive care unit how to interact more sensitively with the infant. If the intervention improves performance on the APIB and leads to better long-term outcomes in early childhood, then one might argue that the APIB has predictive validity, and Als et al. (2003) have argued for such an effect. However, a recent metaanalysis of individualized developmental interventions in the neonatal intensive care unit suggests that the data do not support this argument (Jacobs, Sokol, and Ohlsson, 2002).
Infants and Toddlers
Developmental assessment of infants and toddlers occurs routinely in medical care settings and is carried out by a variety of people; some children receive this service through infant-toddler care/education/intervention programs. In view of the time pressures in primary care settings, the approach has been to rely on brief screening instruments, with more complete assessments of children who do not seem to be developing at the usual pace. Since most young children are monitored by pediatricians or other primary medical care personnel, it seems reasonable to use the clinical guidelines from the American Academy of Pediatrics (American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Children with Disabilities, 2001; American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Children With Disabilities, 2006) as a template for this process.
The first step is developmental surveillance performed as part of the regular well-child visit. Surveillance is considered to include “eliciting and attending to the parents’ concerns, documenting and maintaining a developmental history, making accurate observations of the child, identifying risk and protective factors, and … documenting the process and findings” (American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Children with Disabilities, 2006). If
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developmental concerns are identified or the visit occurs at 9, 18, or 30 months, then a more structured developmental screen is recommended, and several examples are provided. If the screening results are positive, then the child should be referred for formal developmental assessment and early intervention services.
There are three general types of infant and toddler developmental assessments (see Appendix Tables 4-1 through 4-7 for some examples). First, screening tests may take the form of questionnaires for the primary caregiver about the child’s activities, either soliciting the achievement of specific developmental milestones (smiling, walking, specific words) (Glascoe, Martin, and Humphrey, 1990) or eliciting more general assessments of child development (Glascoe, 2003). Second, developmental assessment may take the form of observations of child activities on a limited number of items. No matter which of these approaches is used initially, any child found to have developmental difficulties requires access to the third type, a more refined assessment with a professionally administered developmental tool.
The large number of available assessment instruments has been summarized in several publications (Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 2007; Child Trends, 2004; Glascoe, 2003, 2005; Glascoe et al., 1990; Mathematica Policy Research, 2003). The website (http://www.dbpeds.org) of the American Academy of Pediatrics, in the section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, provides information on developmental screening and assessment. The Educational Testing Service also maintains an online catalog of instruments (http://sydneyplus.ets.org/search.asp?). The National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has a similar database (http://nieer.org/assessment/). A new document from the National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center covers instruments with a focus on social and emotional measures. Appendix D provides more information on these sources for detailed descriptions of instruments.
The instruments tend to cover similar domains of development, such as general cognitive skills; language, motor, and socioemotional development; and functional abilities appropriate to the age of the child. Appendix Tables 4-1 through 4-7 list some of the available instruments. Each table identifies the domain assessed, the type of instrument (usually screening or diagnostic),
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this fact reflects the enormous plasticity of the developing child and susceptibility to environmental influences. Thus, though screening measures of infant functioning can be very important in identifying the need for further diagnostic assessment to reveal conditions that represent risk for poor performance later on, as well as in allowing early access to prevention or intervention, assessment for purposes of tracking development or predicting later outcomes is less likely to be useful.
Conditions Required for Effective Screening
A second set of challenges to effective screening arises from the complexity of putting together the societal conditions required to do it well. Several problems limit the potential usefulness of the current system for infant and toddler developmental screening. First, there are concerns about the validity of the instruments themselves. The sample sizes on which many tests were validated may be insufficient to provide robust estimates of their sensitivity—that is, their ability to identify those affected—and specificity—the ability to avoid identifying those not affected (Camp, 2007). Sensitivity may be further affected when the reference test is given to all who score in the abnormal range but to only a sample of those in the normal range. Some screening tests have used reference tests with outdated norms, resulting in inflated scores. In addition, several have procedural problems that could lead to biased results, and often the reported results do not indicate the predictive validity (Camp, 2007).
A second issue is that responsibilities for screening are dispersed across individuals and settings, and that a standard procedure for administering screenings has not been established. Thus, the screening assessments may not be administered and, if they are, may not provide comparable information across providers. A recent assessment of the quality of pediatric ambulatory care revealed that children received fewer than half of the recommended procedures and that screening procedures were particularly unlikely to be performed (Mangione-Smith et al., 2007). These results parallel those for specific screening tests (Biondich et al., 2006; Wasserman, Croft, and Brotherton, 1992). Clearly, if administration procedures are to be standardized and well implemented, medical and education practitioners working
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with infants and young children need training and support in the appropriate procedures.
Finally, the effectiveness of screening may be further limited by the fact that the system of access to screening settings and of response to abnormalities found may be as diffuse and unstandardized as the assessment process itself. Unlike the classroom setting, in which more standardized and local approaches to developmental and learning problems may be taken, response to abnormalities of development in infants, toddlers, and older preschoolers not already enrolled in intervention programs typically requires referral to other services for diagnosis and management. In part, this variability in response reflects the diversity of state and other policies regarding young children. This means that some infants and toddlers are not screened, and that those who are identified as requiring diagnostic assessments and other services may not receive them. As noted above, much of the early screening is accomplished in health care settings, and access to care is heavily dependent on having health insurance. Children without health insurance are more likely to have low family income, to come from minority families, to use medical care less intensely, and to be referred to other settings for services (Simpson et al., 2005). Even with insurance, access to some services is more difficult than others. Although the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act does mandate testing for all children suspected of developmental disability or delay and requires the provision of appropriate services to children so identified, there remains considerable local variation in the capacity to respond to this mandate. A recent chapter by Gilliam, Meisels, and Mayes (2005) proposes a system of screening and surveillance that uses many available community resources to provide a more integrated screening, referral, and assessment system.
Finally, even if the current assessment of infant and toddler development were more universally effective, fitting well into a larger system and building continuity with the assessment of slightly older preschoolers would improve its usefulness. The focus of infant-toddler assessment procedures is primarily on monitoring development and risks to development for purposes of ensuring adequate progress and to rule out health-related challenges to normal development. For example, the vision examinations conducted by health care providers may focus less on the
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visual acuity needed for classroom work and more on detecting opacities in the eye (e.g., cataracts) that may hamper visual development or muscle imbalances that might signal other neurological problems. Likewise, screening for iron deficiency should attend to the cognitive deficits associated with it as much as evaluating the child’s nutritional status and addressing questions about the production and destruction of red blood cells and potential covert blood loss.
CONCLUSION
Assessment of important behavioral and physiological outcomes for infants and toddlers is an increasing focus of pediatricians, primary medical care providers, and providers of care and education to infants and toddlers. Ideally, these individuals recognize the full array of information—child performance, caregiver report, observation—that can be used and are well trained to collect information systematically. While screening for risk is a key goal of assessment during this developmental period, an equally important goal is tracking well-child developmental indicators and focusing on what children can do as well as what they have problems with. For children with disabilities that have already been identified in this early period, a focus on functional capacities may be more important than a delineation of limitations. Although screening for risk and assessment for well-child functioning are widely practiced, the system of infant and toddler assessment needs to be expanded in a number of ways.
First, it is important that children living in poverty and children from cultural and language-minority groups are included in these assessments. Second, the system linking assessment results to other resources—referrals, follow-up, access to services—is at this time far from seamless. Identifying risk or disability in a young child does little good if no provisions have been made to remedy or mediate the problem, to help caregivers understand and address it, or to link the early available information to decisions about interventions, schooling, and ongoing attention. We raise again the importance of thinking systematically if the potential of assessment to improve child learning and welfare is to be realized.
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APPENDIX TABLES: SUMMARY OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS FOR CHILDREN 0-3 YEARS OF AGE
APPENDIX TABLE 4-1 Domain: Cognition
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
Screening
Ages and Stagesa
Infant Development Inventory
NCHS/NLSY Questionnaire (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, 1981)
Parents’ Evaluation of Developmental Statusa
Infant Monitoring Systema
Denver Prescreening Developmental Questionnairea
Developmental Indicators for Assessment of Learning-Revised
Slosson Intelligence Test
Lexington Developmental Scalesa
Bayley Infant Neurodevelopmental Screener (BINS) (Aylward, 1995)
Battelle Developmental Inventory Screening Testa
Developmental Profile-II
Preschool Screening System
Denver Developmental Screening Test IIa
Brigance Screens
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
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Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
Child Development Inventory and Child Development Review-Parent Questionnaire (Ireton, 1992)
Parents/Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS)a
Capute Scales (CAT/CLAMS) (Voigt et al., 2003)
Diagnostic
Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third ed.
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Ability
Mullen Scales of Early Learning
aIncludes questions on behavioral issues or personal-social development.
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APPENDIX TABLE 4-2 Domain: Language
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
Screening
The Quick Test
Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales (Wetherby and Prizant, 2002)
Early Language Milestone Scale (Coplan, 1993)
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test
Diagnostic
Receptive Expressive Emergent Language Scale (REEL)a
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories
Reynell Developmental Language Scales
Preschool Language Scale
Test of Early Language Development
Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development
aRequires trained interviewer/observer.
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APPENDIX TABLE 4-3 Domain: Motor
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
Screening
Early Motor Pattern Profile (EMPP) (Morgan and Aldag, 1996)
Motor Quotient (Capute and Shapiro, 1985)
Diagnostic
Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third ed. (see above)
Movement Assessment of Infants (Chandler, Andrews, and Swanson, 1980)
Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (Folio and Fewell, 1983)
Alberta Infant Motor Scale (Piper and Darrah, 1994)
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APPENDIX TABLE 4-4 Domain: Social-Emotional
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
General
Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory
Infant-Toddler Social Emotional Assessment, ITSEA
Brief Infant-Toddler Social Emotional Assessment, BITSEA
Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment
Devereux Early Childhood Assessment
Temperament and Atypical Behavior Scale (TABS) (Bagnato et al., 1999)
Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third ed.
Vineland Social-Emotional Maturity Scalea
Screens for Specific Developmental Disabilities
Modified Checklist of Autism in Toddlers (Dumont-Mathieu and Fine, 2005)
Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT) (Baird et al., 2000)
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Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
Pervasive Developmental Disorders Screening Test-II (PDDST-II) (Siegel, 2004)
Screening Tool for Autism in Two-Year-Olds (STAT) (Stone, Coonrod, and Ousley, 2000)
Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) (Rutter, Bailey, and Lord, 2003)
aRequires trained interviewer/observer.
APPENDIX TABLE 4-5 Domain: Function/Activities of Daily Living
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
All
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-IIa
aRequires trained interviewer/observer.
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APPENDIX TABLE 4-6 Domain: Temperament
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
All
Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (Carey Scales)
Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (Putnam and Rothbart, 2006)
Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (Bates, Freeland, and Lounsbury, 1979)
Pictorial Assessment of Temperament (PAT) (Clarke-Stewart et al., 2000)
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APPENDIX TABLE 4-7 Domain: Attachment/Caregiver-Child Interaction
Instrument Type
Data-Gathering Method
Caregiver Report
Observation
Mixed/Both
All
Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure
Preschool Assessment of Attachment (Teti and Gelfand, 1997)
Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training
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