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Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward
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Index
A
Accreditation
ABA recommendation, 194
and admissibility of evidence, 194
ASCLD/LAB, 69, 74, 77, 169, 171, 197-200, 205, 206, 207-208, 214
of certification organizations, 74-75
CLIA legislation, 195, 196
continuing education programs, 197
cycle, 198
data reporting standards, 21, 189
of death investigation systems, 49-50, 294, 246, 252, 258-259, 261-262, 265
education or training requirements for, 197, 231-232
of education programs, 75, 197, 225, 228-229, 237
inspector training, 199
key elements, 195
of laboratories, 6, 21, 41, 47, 48, 53, 68, 69, 77, 132, 136, 190, 195-200, 205, 207
mandatory programs, 48, 194, 199-200, 214
meaning of, 195
noncompliance reporting, 198-199
organizations, 16, 196, 197-200
proficiency testing for, 208
recommendations, 25, 215
research requirement, 261-262
sanctions, 196
status, 199-200
Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, 256, 261
ACE-V process, 105-106, 137, 138-139, 140, 141, 142-143
Admissibility of forensic evidence.
See also Expert testimony;
Litigation;
individual disciplines
accreditation and, 194
appellate review standard, 10, 11, 85, 92, 97, 102
autopsy, 9
Daubert decision, 8, 9-10, 11-12, 90-93, 95-98, 99 n.37, 101-109, 110, 127 n.1, 142, 194, 204, 234, 238, 289
discretion of trial judges, 10, 11, 92, 96-97, 108
education of judicial community and, 234
Federal Rule of Evidence 401, 108 n.82
Federal Rule of Evidence 702, 9-10, 89, 90-92, 95, 101
fingerprint analyses, 9, 12 n.24, 43, 102-106, 142, 143
Frye standard, 88-89, 90-91, 95, 99 n.57
handwriting, 107
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judicial certification of methodologies, 12, 86
judicial dispositions, 95-109
pressures on system, 4-5, 52-53
pretrial hearings, 92, 99n.57
reliability standard, 9, 10, 12, 86, 88-89, 90, 91, 109, 111, 194
science and law, 12, 86-88
state standards, 95
toolmark and firearm identification, 97, 107-108
American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), 26, 74-75, 76, 173, 209, 214, 223, 225, 228, 259
American Bar Association (ABA), 194, 208-209
American Board of Criminalistics (ABC), 76, 209, 210, 227
American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO), 76, 173, 174, 175, 176, 210
American Board of Forensic Toxicology, 76, 210
American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators, 30, 210, 259, 267
American Board of Pathology (ABP), 28, 210, 256, 257, 259, 265
American Law Institute, 29, 266
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 205, 272
American Society of Clinical Pathologists, 259-260
American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD), 64, 68, 74, 76, 209, 214, 221, 231, 232, 233, 235
Laboratory Accreditation Board, 69, 74, 77, 169, 171, 197-200, 205, 206, 207-208, 214
Anthrax bioterroism attacks, 254, 281
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 69, 280
Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory, 65, 67, 69, 280, 281
Arson investigations, 172-173.
See also Explosives evidence and fire debris
Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), 28, 257-258, 266
Association of Firearm and Tool Marks Examiners (AFTE), 76, 153, 155, 210
ASTM International, 76, 135, 169, 201
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
administrative, legal, and policy issues, 276
ideal system, 274-275
identification of prints, 52, 139, 269
interoperability challenges, 31, 51-52, 253, 270-271, 272-276
recommendations, 31-32, 277-278
search categories, 269-270
support from policymakers, 275-276
technical challenges, 273-275
vendor cooperation, 31, 276
Autopsies, 9, 30, 49, 50, 56, 86, 242, 243, 247, 248, 249-250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 259, 261-264, 267-268
B
Backlog of cases
defined, 39
impacts on criminal justice system, 37, 77
management and prevention, 14, 15, 61-63, 64, 77, 187
reliability of data on, 62
resource deficiencies and, 14-15, 39-40, 62, 68-69
volume, 39, 58, 66
Ballistic evidence, 44, 151, 152
Bioforensics, 70, 281-282
Biological evidence.
See also Blood;
DNA;
Saliva;
Semen
analyses, 60, 130-132
characteristics, 128
laboratories, 68, 70
reporting of results, 132
sample data and collection, 129-130
summary assessment, 133
Biotoxins and biological agents, 70
Bite mark analysis.
See also Forensic odontology
admissibility of evidence, 107-108, 175
analytical approaches, 64, 174-175
distortion of skin, 174, 176
errors and bias, 47, 174-175, 176
guidelines, 173-174, 175
reporting of results, 175-176
research needs, 175, 176
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sample data and collection, 173-174, 188
scientific validity, 7-8, 42, 87, 173, 174, 175-176, 188
summary assessment, 176
uniqueness theory, 174, 176
virtopsy and, 254
Bloodstain pattern analysis
analyses, 177-178
bias in, 178
certification, 178, 210
crime scene/event reconstruction, 177
guidelines, 202
investigators, 64
reporting of results, 132
sample data and collection, 177
scientific basis, 158-179
summary assessment, 178-179
Botanical evidence, 128, 134, 161.
See also Trace evidence
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF)
CEASEFIRE database, 151
forensic laboratories, 65, 68-69
Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), 14, 36, 39, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 71, 208, 243 n.18
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 219
C
California Association of Criminalists, 76, 214
Case.
See also Backlog of cases
defined, 36 n.3
CEASEFIRE database, 151
Census of Publicly Funded Crime Laboratories, 14, 36, 39, 58, 59, 64, 66, 71, 199, 200, 208, 219
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 29, 196, 260, 263, 266
Public Health Information Network, 260, 273
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), 195, 196
Certification of examiners, 6, 16, 47, 53, 70, 74-75, 77, 78, 137, 147-148, 171, 173, 178, 181, 190, 193, 194, 196, 208-210, 214, 231-232
Chain of custody, 36, 182, 233
Charge to committee, 1-2, 5
Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 (CLIA), 195, 196
Codes of ethics, 212-214
Cognitive biases, 122-124, 149
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), 40, 61, 66, 67, 100, 131-132, 197
Computer crime investigations, 60.
See also Digital and multimedia analysis
Controlled substance evidence
admissibility, 9, 101-102
analyses, 60, 117, 134-135
backlog of cases, 39
certification, 210
characteristics, 133
error sources and rates, 116-117, 135
personnel and equipment shortages, 59
reliability, 101, 136
reporting of results, 135
research, 73
sample data and collection, 86, 134
summary assessment, 135-136
SWGDRUG standards, 134, 135-136, 203-204
training and expertise of examiners, 136
Coroners. See Medical examiners and coroners;
Medicolegal death investigation system
Coverdell. See Paul Coverdell
Crime scene investigation
certification, 210
“CSI effect,” 48, 222
DNA evidence, 41
guidelines, 57
liability issues, 57
practices, 7, 35, 48, 56-57, 129
professional associations, 76-77, 210
research funding, 72, 73, 75
standards and oversight, 57
technologies, 72, 73, 75, 129, 130
training and experience of investigators, 32, 33, 35, 36, 57, 60-61, 64, 129 n.4, 185, 218, 220-221, 227, 285-286
“CSI effect,” 48, 108, 222
Cyber Crime Center, 69, 280
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D
Databases and reference libraries
Armed Forces Repository of Specimen Samples for the Identification of Remains, 69
automotive carpet fiber, 73
CEASEFIRE, 151
CODIS, 40, 61, 66, 67, 100, 131-132, 197
DRUGFIRE database, 151
Electronic Crime Portfolio, 71, 72-73
EXPeRT, 67
Explosives Reference File, 67
FBI, 40, 65-66, 67, 73, 131-132, 151, 197
fingerprints, see Automated Fingerprint Identification System;
Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System
funding, 73
Joint Federal Agencies Intelligence DNA Database, 281
MECISP, 263
NamUs, 245
National Automotive Paint File, 67, 118
National Violent Death Review System, 263
NCIC UP/MP, 244-245
NIBIN, 151, 152, 153
Paint Data Query database, 67, 168
Standard Ammunition File, 67
toolmarks and firearms, 67, 151, 152, 153
Western Identification Network, 270-271
Death investigation systems. See Medicolegal death investigation system
Department of Commerce, 13, 65
Department of Defense (DOD)
forensic science capabilities, 13, 69-70, 187, 280-281, 280-281
Joint Task Force Civil Support, 260
research support, 69
Department of Health and Human Services, 28, 196, 261, 265
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 13, 80.
See also Homeland security;
National Bioforensic Analysis and Countermeasures Center;
U.S. Secret Service
Department of Justice.
See also Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section, 181
definition of backlogged cases, 39
grant programs, 13, 28, 62-63, 66, 80, 210-211, 213, 266
judicial training program, 235
leadership potential in forensic science, 17, 80
missions, 17, 80
Office of Inspector General, 45-46, 68, 105, 211, 212, 213, 274
proficiency test design, 207
Digital and multimedia analysis, 64
certification, 181
computer examination, 180-182
crimes and devices associated with, 179, 180
education and training, 181, 220
sample data and collection, 180
search and seizure, 181-182
DNA evidence
accreditation of laboratories, 41, 68, 132, 197-198, 200, 207
admissibility, 9, 41, 99-101, 103, 104, 107, 133
amplification, 131
analytical methods, 13, 130-132, 133
ascendancy of, 4, 40-41
backlog of cases, 14, 39, 40, 72, 187, 219
California Proposition 69, 40
databases and registries, 13, 40, 61, 66, 67, 69, 100, 131-132, 280-281
errors or fraud, 9, 47, 57, 86-87, 100, 121, 130, 132, 133, 184
exonerations, 37, 42, 100, 107, 109 n.87, 160
FBI guidelines, 40, 47, 114-115, 131-132, 202
funding, 41, 71-72, 73, 101, 187
growth in use of, 4, 41, 219
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hair analysis, 131, 160
interpreting evidence, 41, 100, 139
judicial education programs, 235
jury comprehension of evidence, 236-237
laboratories, 36, 40, 41, 58, 65, 68, 131, 132
mitochondrial (mtDNA) testing, 7, 38, 47, 130-131, 132, 160-161, 182, 188, 227
nuclear testing, 7, 38, 47, 87, 100, 115, 128, 130-131, 139, 155, 161, 182, 188
President’s DNA Initiative, 41, 71, 235
proficiency testing, 40, 41, 132, 200, 207
reporting of results, 132
research, 13, 71-72, 73, 74-75, 101, 109
semen profiling, 73, 74
SNP testing, 74, 131, 227
standards and quality control, 40, 41, 65, 114-115, 131-132, 197, 200, 207
training and expertise, 13, 71, 132
validity and reliability, 7, 40, 41, 42, 47, 87, 99-100, 103, 104, 114-115, 121, 128, 130, 133, 139, 155
workload, 39, 40, 41, 72
Y STR testing, 131
DNA Identification Act, 197, 200, 207
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), 65, 203
Drug identification. See Controlled substance
DRUGFIRE database, 151
Drylabbing, 45, 193
E
Ear prints, 145, 149, 150
Education and training
accreditation of, 75, 197, 225, 228-229, 237
advanced courses, 227
apprenticeship model, 15, 26-27, 140, 187, 217, 224, 232, 233, 238
associate degree, 148, 220-221, 225
challenges and improvement opportunities, 14, 224-229
continuing education, 197, 218, 231, 233-234, 236, 259-260
“CSI effect,” 222
curriculum, 27, 227-228, 233-234, 238
deficiencies in, 44-45, 78
demand for forensic practitioners and, 218-221
by discipline, 220
doctoral programs, 223, 230
funding, 62, 66, 71, 223, 230-231, 237
in-service programs, 27, 227, 232
institutions offering programs, 229
of judicial community, 27, 178, 234-238
medical examiners and coroners, 6, 49, 50, 242-243, 247-249, 255, 256, 259-260, 264-265
proliferation of programs, 222-223
purposes, 217-218
quality of programs, 224-225
recommendations, 27-28, 239
and reliability of evidence, 16, 129 n.4
requirement for accreditation or certification, 197, 231-232
research component, 230-231
sources, 16, 66, 69, 70, 73, 197, 229
standardization of materials, 189
standards for, 201, 224, 225-226, 237
status, 218-223, 231-234
training needs, 15-16, 218, 232-233
undergraduate and graduate programs, 27, 217, 220, 223, 224, 225-229, 238
variability within and across disciplines, 7, 15
European Network of Forensic Science Institutes, 135, 202, 207
Evidence processing
backlogs and, 37
chain of custody, 36, 182, 233
computer-generated files, 182
errors in, 4-5, 9, 45, 47, 57, 100
impacts of, 37, 45
Exclusionary evidence, 36, 51, 82, 127 n.1, 131, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 156, 157, 160, 167, 204-205
Exculpatory evidence, suppression, 45, 107 n.81
Expert testimony.
See also Admissibility of forensic evidence;
Interpretation of forensic evidence;
Reporting of results
access to, 11, 98
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error or bias in, 4, 8 n.8, 9-10, 37, 87, 42, 100, 107, 109 n.87
junk science, 89
reliability standard, 9-10, 93-94
rhetorical dimension, 106 n.79
technical or specialized knowledge, 94-95
Explosives evidence and fire debris
analyses, 170-172
certification, 171, 210
databases and reference files, 67
education and training of examiners, 171
guidelines, 171, 172, 201
laboratories, 65
personnel and equipment shortages, 59
proficiency testing, 171
reporting of results, 172
research funding, 72, 73
scientific foundation, 172-173
standard setting, 65
summary assessment, 172-173
Explosives Reference File, 67
Explosives Reference Tools database (EXPeRT), 67
F
Falsification of evidence, 44, 45, 193
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
biased cases, 45-46
case backlogs, 66
case types, 65
Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit, 73
databases and reference libraries, 40, 65-66, 67, 73, 131-132, 151, 197
forensic laboratories and services, 16, 65-66, 67, 70, 73, 79, 131, 132, 140-141, 202-203
friction ridge analysis apprenticeship, 140-141
funding for research, 15, 66, 73, 78
Joint Terrorism Task Force, 283
Latent Fingerprint Unit, 46
leadership potential in forensic science, 16, 17, 79, 80
missions, 17, 80
Quality Assurance Standards for Forensic DNA Testing Laboratories, 114-115, 131-132
Research and Development Program, 73
Research Partnership Program, 73
SWG guidelines, 16, 40, 46, 47, 73, 114-115, 131-132, 202
workload, 66
Federal Rule of Evidence 401, 108 n.82
Federal Rule of Evidence 702
amendment in 2000, 92-95
Daubert decision, 9-10, 90-92
Frye standard and, 88-89
Fiber evidence
automotive carpet fiber database, 73
characteristics, 161, 163
guidelines, 162-163, 201
proficiency testing, 159, 163
sample collection and analysis, 161, 162
scientific validity, 122
summary assessment, 162-163
Fingerprint analyses. See Automated Fingerprint Identification System;
Friction ridge analysis
Fire debris. See Explosives evidence and fire debris
Firearms identification. See Ballistics evidence;
Toolmark and firearm identification
Footwear and tire impressions
analyses, 36, 64, 146-148
biases, 149
certification in, 78, 147-148, 210
characteristics, 146-147, 149
proficiency testing, 147-148
reporting of results, 148-149, 150
sample data and collection, 146
scientific interpretation, 43, 148-149
scientific validity and reliability, 149
SWGTREAD standards, 148-149, 150, 203
summary assessment, 149-150
training and expertise of examiners, 145, 147, 148
Forensic anthropology, 73, 220
Forensic art, 64, 77, 210
Forensic laboratories. See Laboratories
Forensic odontology.
See also Bite mark analyis
board certification, 173, 210
defined, 173
education and training, 220
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Forensic pathology.
See also Medical examiners and coroners
certification, 210, 256-257, 265
classification systems, 264
defined, 256
education and training, 29, 220, 256, 257, 259-260
practices, 257
research, 261-263
shortages of pathologists, 60, 256-258
Forensic photography, 64, 77, 210
Forensic Quality Services (FQS), 74, 77, 197-198, 199
Forensic Resource Network, 71, 72
Forensic science, defined, 38-39
Forensic science community.
See also individual components
case backlogs, 61-62
challenges, 4-5
components, 55-77
disparities in, 5-6, 55
federal activities, 64-70
fragmentation, 14-33, 6, 77, 78
governance, 16-20, 78-83;
see also Oversight of forensic practice
nonlaboratory units, 63-64
professional associations, 16, 74-77
recommendations, 19-20, 78, 81-82
research funding, 71-75
Forensic science disciplines.
See also Biological evidence;
Bloodstain pattern analysis;
Controlled substance evidence;
Digital and multimedia analysis;
Explosives evidence and fire debris;
Fiber evidence;
Footware and tire impressions;
Forensic odontology;
Friction ridge analysis;
Hair evidence;
Paint and coatings evidence;
Questioned document examination;
Toolmark and firearm identification
biases in, 184-185
categories, 37, 38-39
disparities between and within, 8
educational pathways by, 220
guidelines, 66;
see also Scientific Working Groups
interpretation-based, 3, 7, 87, 136-145, 184-185, 188
knowledge base, 15, 77-78;
see also Scientific method
laboratory based, 3, 7, 38, 87, 128-136, 167-170, 182, 188
pattern/impression evidence, 136-150, 155-167, 170-179, 182, 184
skills and expertise, 7, 38
variability, 6-7, 15, 182, 188
Forensic Science Education Program Accreditation Commission (FEPAC), 75, 225-226, 228, 229, 230 n.36
Forensic science system.
See also Pressures on forensic science system
capacity and quality, 37
homeland security and, 5, 32-33, 52, 279-286
Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board, 74-75, 209-210
Friction ridge analysis.
See also Automated Fingerprint Identification System;
Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System
ACE-V process, 105-106, 137, 138-139, 140, 141, 142-143
admissibility of evidence, 9, 12 n.24, 43, 102-106, 142, 143
automated pattern recognition, 139, 140
backlogs, 64, 66
bias, 105, 123
certification, 78, 137, 210
characteristics of prints, 136
comparison to known prints, 138, 139
data collection and analysis, 137-140
error rates, 103-104, 105, 142, 143
funding for research, 73, 205
guidelines, 136-137, 141, 203, 205
identification units, 200
interpretation methods, 43-44, 139, 140-141, 269
laboratories, 65, 66, 68, 136
methods, 7-8, 51, 103, 105-106, 137, 138-139, 140, 141, 142-143
quality and distortion issues, 7-8, 9, 86, 87, 137-138, 140, 141, 145, 270
reporting of results, 141-142, 143
research needs, 73, 105, 141, 144-145
scientific reliability and validity, 43, 86, 87, 88 n.5, 102-104, 105-106, 140, 142-143
scores and thresholds, 141
shortages of personnel and equipment, 59
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source determination or exclusion, 138, 139, 141
statistical models, 139-140, 141, 145
subjectivity in, 139-140
summary assessment, 142-145
training and expertise of examiners, 36, 58, 60, 64, 136-137, 140-141
uniqueness and persistence of prints, 143-144
verification, 138-139
Frye v. United States, 88-89, 90-91, 95, 99 n.57
G
Gunshot residue analysis, 35, 65, 201, 254
H
Hair evidence
accuracy in identification, 47, 121, 157-159
admissibility, 107, 161
automated analysis and comparison, 158-159
characteristics, 155-156, 157
DNA analysis, 131, 160
proficiency testing, 159
reporting of results, 159-160, 161
sample data and collection, 156-157
scientific interpretation, 159-160
scientific reliability and validity, 8, 117-118, 160
summary assessment, 160-161
training and expertise of examiners, 156
validation study (hypothetical), 118-120, 121
Handwriting analysis. See Questioned document examination
Homeland security
bioforensics, 281-282
Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams, 260
DOD forensic science capabilities, 280-281
forensic science role, 5, 32-33, 52, 279-286
ME/C and, 50-51, 260-261, 265, 283-284
National Biodefense Forensic Analysis Center, 281
National Counterproliferation Center, 70, 282
National Response Plan, 260
recommendations, 33, 285-286
WMD threat, 282
Houston Police Department Crime Laboratory, 44-45, 193
Hurricane Katrina, 253, 260, 261
I
Identification units, 46, 55, 57, 63-64, 136, 200
Illinois State Police, 57-58
Immunological tests, 129, 130
Individualization (matching) of evidence, 7, 43-44, 87, 101, 117-118, 136, 184
Innocence Project, 42, 45, 46-47, 100 n.58, 109 n.87
Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), 46, 51, 65-66, 270, 271, 274, 275
International Association for Identification (IAI), 64, 74, 76-77, 136, 137, 148, 149, 150, 178, 199, 209, 210, 272
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 21, 25, 113-114, 198, 199, 200, 215
Interpretation of forensic evidence
fingerprints, 43-44, 139, 140-141, 269
hair, 159-160
impression evidence, 43, 148-149
improving, 184-185, 188
individualization principle, 7, 43-44, 87, 101, 117-118, 136, 184
problems, 7-8, 9, 86, 100
research needs, 8, 188
scores and thresholds, 141
J
Jurors
comprehension of evidence, 236-237
expectations about evidence, 48-49, 86, 88, 219
model instructions for, 238
Justice for All Act, 62, 210-211, 213
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L
Laboratories.
See also Nonlaboratory service providers
accreditation, 6, 21, 41, 47, 48, 53, 68, 69, 77, 136, 190, 195-200, 205
ATF, 65, 68-69
backlog of cases, 14, 15, 37, 39, 58, 61-62, 66, 68-69, 77, 219
configurations, 57-58
Coverdell grant program, 62-63
defined, 36-37
DNA, 36, 40, 41, 58, 65, 68, 131, 132
DOD, 69-70
error sources and rates, 44, 45, 116-117
FBI, 16, 65-66, 67, 70, 73, 79, 131, 132, 140-141, 202-203
functions, 60-61
funding, 15, 58-59, 65, 68, 77
guidelines, 202-203
independence in administration, 23-24, 183-184
mobile, 68, 69-70
number in U.S., 58
outsourcing, 61
personnel and equipment shortages, 6, 14-15, 36, 59-60, 62, 65, 66, 68, 77-78, 219
private, 36, 41, 58, 61
proficiency testing, 208
publicly funded, 36, 39, 41, 52, 55, 58-61, 65-70, 183-184, 208
quality assurance standards, 44-45, 193, 194
recommendations, 23-24, 190-191
reporting data, 21-22, 189-190
research resources, 15, 71
state-operated, 200
training and expertise of staff, 36, 47, 58, 59-60, 132, 136, 221
U.S. Secret Service, 66, 68
validation of methods, 21, 22, 114, 115, 189, 197-198, 202, 206
workloads, 36, 58, 60, 61, 65-66, 68
Landmark decisions
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc., 8, 9-10, 11-12, 90-93, 95-98, 99 n.37, 101-109, 110, 127 n.1, 142, 194, 204, 234, 238, 289
Frye v. United States, 88-89, 90-91, 95, 99 n.57
General Electric Co. v. Joiner, 10, 91, 92, 93, 97
Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael, 10, 12, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 108
Maryland v. Rose, 105-106
People v. Castro, 99, 133
United States v. Brown, 96, 97, 102
United States v. Crisp, 102, 103, 104, 206
United States v Havvard, 103-104
Latent prints. See Friction ridge
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, 223, 231, 251, 252
Lie detector tests, 64, 68, 88
Lip prints, 145, 149, 150
Litigation.
See also Admissibility of forensic evidence;
Expert testimony;
Landmark decisions
appellate review standard, 85, 92, 97, 102
bias in judges and juries, 123
civil cases, 11, 89, 97-98, 107, 250
criminal cases, 9, 11, 12, 36, 45, 53, 87, 88, 95-96, 97, 98, 106-110, 237, 250, 254
education of judicial community for, 27, 178, 234-238
juror comprehension of and expectations about evidence, 48-49, 86, 88, 218, 236-237
limitations of adversary process, 10, 12, 53, 85, 86, 91, 103, 110
scientific expertise of judges and lawyers, 85, 87-88, 110
M
Madrid train bombing, 45-46, 104-105, 123
Mayfield, Brandon, 45-46, 104-105, 123
Medical Examiner and Coroner Information Sharing Program (MECISP), 263
Medical examiners and coroners (ME/C), 243.
See also Medicolegal death investigation system
best practices, 252
caseload, 49, 244
historical origins, 241-242
jurisdiction, 49, 50, 244, 260
missions, 56, 243, 244-245
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proficiency testing, 209
recommendations, 267-268
sample and data collection methods, 263-264
shortages of MEs and forensic pathologists, 6, 50, 60, 256-258
training and skills, 6, 49, 50, 242-243, 247-249, 255, 256, 259-260, 264-265
virtopsy, 253-254
Medicolegal death investigation system.
See also Forensic pathology;
Medical examiners and coroners
administration and oversight, 249
biosafety capability, 254
conversion of coroner systems to ME systems, 49-50, 241-243, 251-252
fragmentation, 49-51, 246
funding for improvements, 28, 265-266
and homeland security, 50-51, 260-261, 265, 283-284
quality control and quality assurance, 209, 259
recommendations, 29-30, 267-268
staffing and funding, 50, 247-248, 249-251, 252
standards and accreditation, 49-50, 294, 246, 252, 258-259, 261-262, 265
technologies, 28, 253-255, 265
variations in, 50, 56, 245-246
Methodological issues. See Scientific method
Michigan State Police, 44, 221
Microbial forensics, 70, 73
Missing persons, 244-245
Mitochondrial (mtDNA) testing, 7, 38, 47, 130-131, 132, 160-161, 182, 188, 227
Model Post-Mortem Examinations Act, 29, 242-243, 265, 266
N
National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME), 26, 28, 29, 30, 50, 60, 74, 76, 77, 200 n.22, 209, 242, 250, 252, 253, 257, 258, 259, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267
National Automotive Paint File, 67
National Biodefense Forensic Analysis Center, 281
National Bioforensic Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBFAC), 70
National Bioforensic Analysis Center, 281
National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, 29, 242-243, 266
National Crime Information Center Unidentified and Missing Persons (NCIC UP/MP), 244-245
National Forensic Science Technology Center (NFSTC), 70, 76, 197-198
National Forensic Sciences Improvement Act, 265, 266
National Institute of Forensic Science (proposed)
benefits, 20
challenges, 20
cost, 20, 82
criteria for, 18-19, 80-81
recommended focus, 19-20, 81-82
National Institute of Justice, 219
categories of forensic science disciplines, 38
Coverdell grant program, 15, 28, 62-63, 77, 210-211, 213, 266
leadership potential, 16, 79
Office of Justice Programs, 211-212, 213, 245
Office of Research and Evaluation, 71
Office of Science and Technology, 71
research funding, 15, 71-73, 74-75, 78, 187, 230
Technical Working Group on Crime Scene Investigation (TWGCSI), 57
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 4, 17, 24, 25, 31, 65, 73, 79-80, 115, 151, 201, 205, 214-215, 272, 277
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 28, 30, 72, 101, 187, 228, 265-266, 267
National Integrated Ballistic Information Network (NIBIN), 151, 152, 153
National Science Foundation (NSF), 17, 72, 79-80, 187, 228, 230
Nonlaboratory service providers, 56, 58
backlogs, 64
functions, 63-64
funding, 64
identification units, 55, 64, 136, 200
skills and expertise of examiners, 64
workforce, 64
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O
Occupational Health and Safety Administration, 263-264
Odontology. See Forensic odontology
Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 70, 282
Oversight of forensic practice.
See also Accreditation;
Quality assurance and quality control;
Standards and guidelines
audits of laboratories, 44
breadth, 17
Coverdell grant program requirements, 210-212, 213
governance organization, 78-83
of ME/C, 249
organizations, 70
recommendations, 81-82, 214-215
P
Paint and coatings evidence
analyses, 117-118, 168-169, 170
databases and reference libraries, 67, 118, 168
education and training of examiners, 168-169
guidelines, 169, 201
proficiency testing, 169
reporting of results, 169
research, 73
sample data and collection, 167
scientific interpretation, 169
summary assessment, 170
validation study (hypothetical), 120
Paint Data Query database, 67, 168
Pan Am Flight 103, 279
Pathology. See Forensic Pathology;
Medical examiners and coroners
Pattern/impression evidence.
See also Footwear and tire impressions;
Fiber evidence;
Friction ridge analysis;
Handwriting analysis;
Toolmark and firearm identification
automated pattern recognition, 139, 140, 158-159
certification, 76-77
individualization principle, 43-44, 136
professional associations, 76-77
proficiency testing, 47
research funding, 72, 75
scientific reliability, 42
subjective nature of, 139-140, 153
types, 145, 146
Paul Coverdell Forensic Science Improvement Grants Program, 28, 62-63, 210-211, 213, 266
Paul Coverdell National Forensic Science Improvement Act, 28, 62
Polygraph tests. See Lie detector tests
President’s DNA Initiative, 41, 71, 235
Pressures on forensic science system.
See also Backlog of cases
admissibility of evidence, 52-53
AFIS compatibility issues, 51-52
CSI effect, 48-49
DNA analysis, 40-41
errors and fraud, 4-5, 42-43, 44-48, 57
homeland security, 52
medicolegal death investigation, 49-51
questionable or questioned science, 4-5, 42-44
Professional associations, 16, 74-77, 78
Proficiency testing, 40, 41, 47, 132, 147-148, 159, 163, 166 n.98, 169, 171, 188, 194, 200, 206-208
PROTECT Act of 2003, 66, 68
Q
Quality assurance and quality control.
See also Accreditation;
Oversight of forensic practice
certification of examiners, 6, 16, 47, 53, 70, 74-75, 77, 78, 137, 147-148, 171, 173, 178, 181, 190, 193, 194, 196, 208-210, 214, 231-232
codes of ethics, 5, 212-214
DNA testing, 40, 41, 65, 114-115, 131-132, 197, 200, 207
federal funding tied to, 194
mandatory, 194
ME/C, 209, 259
problems with laboratories, 44-45, 193, 194
proficiency testing, 40, 41, 47, 132, 147-148, 159, 163, 166 n.98, 169, 171, 188, 194, 200, 206-208
recommendations, 26, 215
standards and guidelines, 5, 6, 44, 193, 194, 201-206
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Questioned document examination, 163-164
analyses, 60, 64, 164-165
certification in, 78, 210
guidelines, 201, 202
handwriting analysis, 107, 136, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167
ink and paper examination, 164-165, 167, 201
laboratories, 65, 68
personnel and equipment shortages, 59
proficiency testing, 166 n.98
reporting of results, 166
scientific interpretation, 166, 167
scientific reliability, 166-167
summary assessment, 166-167
training, 201
types of analyses, 163-164
R
Recommendations
accreditation and certification, 25, 215
AFIS interoperability, 31-32, 277-278
code of ethics, 26, 215
education and training, 27-28, 239
governance of forensic science community, 19-20, 78
homeland security-related, 33, 285-286
laboratory autonomy, 23-24, 190-191
medical examiner/coroner systems, 29-30, 267-268
protocol development, 24-25, 214-215
quality assurance and quality control, 26, 215
research, 22-24, 190
standardized reporting of results, 22, 189-190
Reference Firearms Collection, 67
Reporting of results.
See also individual disciplines
ASTM standards, 201
content and language, 186
methodological issues, 21, 22, 112, 114, 115-116, 124, 125, 186, 189, 197-198, 202, 206
standardization, 21-22, 185-186, 189-190
Research
accreditation requirement, 261-262
biometric technologies, 74
DOD, 69
on error and bias sources, 24, 191
FBI, 15, 66, 73, 78
in forensic pathology, 261-263
funding, 15, 18, 22, 66, 71-75, 78, 80, 101, 105, 141, 144-145, 187, 189, 190, 205, 230-231, 262
laboratory resources, 15, 71
microbial forensics, 70
needs, 8, 22-23, 24, 53, 72, 109, 110, 186, 187-188, 189, 190, 191
NIJ, 15, 71-73, 74-75, 78, 187, 230
NIST, 79
recommendations, 22-24, 190
student exposure to, 230-231
validation of new methods, 22-23, 52, 77-78, 113-116, 118-119, 121, 187-188, 189, 190
S
Sample and data collection methods.
See also individual disciplines
ME/C, 263-264
Science, State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act of 2006, 1
Scientific method
between-individual variability, 118, 184
bias source, 24, 45-46, 57, 86, 112, 116, 122-124, 184-185, 191
classification conclusions, 117, 118, 120, 121, 184-185
DNA analysis, 114-115, 184
elements of good practice, 113
error rates, 24, 86, 117-122, 184, 191
in forensic science, 113, 116-122, 188
fundamental principles, 45, 112-125
improving, 112, 114, 184-185
individualization (matching) conclusions, 43-44, 87, 101, 117-118, 121
ISO/IEC 17025 standard, 21, 22, 114, 115-116, 189, 197-198, 202, 206
measurement error, 116-117, 121
predictive values, 120
recommendations, 24-25, 214-215
reporting results, 21, 22, 112, 114, 115-116, 124, 125, 186, 189, 197-198, 202, 206
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self-correcting nature of science, 125
sensitivity, 119, 120
specificity, 119-120
uncertainty and error, 9, 21-22, 47, 116-122, 184-185
validation of new methods, 22, 52, 77-78, 113-116, 118-119, 121, 187-188, 190
within-individual variability, 118, 184
Scientific Working Group
for Analysis of Seized Drugs, 134, 135-136, 203-204
on Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (SWGBPA), 178, 202
on Crime Scene Investigation, 57
of DNA Analysis (SWGDAM), 202
for Firearms and Toolmarks (SWGGUN), 202, 204
on Forensic Analysis of Chemical Terrorism (SWGFACT), 202
on Forensic Analysis of Radiological Materials (SWGFARM), 203
for Forensic Document Exmination (SWGDOC), 202
on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST), 136-137, 141, 203, 205
on Materials Analysis (SWGMAT), 157, 162-163, 169, 202, 24-205
on Microbial Genetics and Forensics (SWGMGF), 203
scoring system for reporting results, 21, 186
on Shoeprint and Tire Tread Evidence (SWGTREAD), 148-149, 150, 203
Semen, 73, 74, 128, 129, 130, 131
Sexual assaults, 9, 61, 86, 131, 173
Shoeprint. See Footwear and tire impressions
Standard Ammunition File, 67
Standardization
of educational materials, 189
reporting of results, 22, 189-190
Standards and guidelines.
See also individual disciplines
for admissibility of evidence, 9-10, 12, 86, 88-89, 90, 91, 93-94, 95, 109, 111, 194
ASTM, 201
data reporting, 21, 189
for education and training, 201, 224, 225-226, 237
FBI, 114-115, 131-132
funding for development, 73
harmonization of, 16, 78
ISO/IEC 17025, 21, 22, 114, 115-116, 189, 197-198, 202, 206
lack of, 6, 14
NIST, 201-202
for policy and procedure development, 201-202
purpose, 201
sanctions for noncompliance, 205
working groups, 79;
see also Scientific Working Group
Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine, 264
T
Technical Working Group
for Analysis of Seized Drugs (TWGDRUG), 203
on Crime Scene Investigation (TWGCSI), 57
for Education and Training in Forensic Science (TWGED), 209, 225
for Fire and Explosives (TWGFEX), 171, 172
on Friction Ridge Analysis (TWGFAST), 205
Technology transfer, 70, 76
Toolmark and firearm identification, 3, 38, 136, 188.
See also Ballistic evidence, 44
accreditation in, 68
admissibility of evidence, 97, 107-108
analyses, 37, 38, 42, 145, 152
certification programs, 210
class characteristics, 152
databases and reference libraries, 67, 151, 152, 153
error rates, 154
generation of marks, 150-151
guidelines, 153, 155, 202, 204
individual characteristics, 150, 152
laboratories for, 60, 65, 68
personnel and equipment shortages, 59
research needs, 154
sample data and collection, 151-152
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scientific interpretation, 7, 42, 43, 153-154, 155
scientific validity and reliability, 107-108, 154
subclass characteristics, 152
summary assessment, 154-155
training and skills, 153, 232
uncertainty and bias, 184
units, 64
Toxicology services, 59, 72, 73, 254-255
Trace evidence.
See also Fiber evidence;
Hair evidence;
Paint
and coatings evidence, 60, 65
certification, 210
guidelines, 201
laboratories, 65, 68
organic chemical analysis, 73
personnel and equipment shortages, 59
research, 73
Trans World Airlines Flight 800, 279-280
U
U.S. Army. See Army
U.S. Secret Service
forensic laboratory, 66, 68
USS Cole bombing, 280
V
Voice identification, 47
W
West Virginia State Police laboratory, 44
Western Identification Network, 270-271
World Trade Center attacks, 131, 260, 279
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