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PAPERBACK price:$49.95 add to cart Rights & Permissions Free PDF Access Sign in to download PDF book and chapters Free Resources PDF SUMMARY PDF Report Brief Display this book on your site! Related Titles Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy ACRP Report 60: Guidelines for Integrating Alternative Jet Fuel into the Airport Setting Other Related Titles Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts (2009) National Academy of Sciences (NAS) National Academy of Engineering (NAE) National Research Council (NRC) Citation Manager Export the bibliographic data for this book in your chosen format Web Search Builder Use this book's key terms to search within this book, across our collection, or across the Web. Skim This Chapter Skim this chapter and use this chapter's key terms to search within this book. Reference Finder Paste in your own text to find books that relate to your topic. Citation Manager . "Appendix H: Background Information on the Economic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Supply." Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2009. Please select a format: Page 325   E-mail Share on facebook Facebook Share on delicious Delicious Share on stumbleupon Stumble Share on twitter Twitter More Sharing ServicesMore The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. H Background Information on the Economic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Supply The tables in this appendix present the background information and assumptions that were used in the panel’s economic assessments and greenhouse gas emission analyses. They include comparisons of published and updated costs of harvest and maintenance (Table H.1), nutrient replacement (Table H.2), transportation for delivery (Tables H.3 and H.4), storage (Table H.5), and establishment and seeding (Table H.6) for different cellulosic feedstocks. Estimates of opportunity costs for cellulosic feedstocks are presented (Table H.7). The published yield values from which current and future projections were computed (Table H.8), and carbon inputs for feedstock production (Table H.9) and biomass refining (Table H.10) are also included. Page 325 Front Matter (R1-R18) Synopsis (1-6) Summary (7-50) 1 Liquid Fuels for Transportation (51-62) 2 Biomass Resources for Liquid Transportation Fuels (63-116) 3 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass (117-162) 4 Thermochemical Conversion of Coal and Biomass (163-224) 5 Distribution (225-242) 6 Comparison of Options and Market Penetration (243-268) 7 Overall Findings and Recommendations (269-276) 8 Key Challenges to Commercial Deployment (277-280) 9 Other Alternative Fuel Options (281-292) APPENDIXES (293-294) Appendix A: America's Energy Future Project (295-300) Appendix B: Statement of Task (301-302) Appendix C: Panel Members' Biographical Sketches (303-310) Appendix D: Presentations to the Panel (311-312) Appendix E: Research Supporting a Landscape Vision of Production of Biofuel Feedstock (313-316) Appendix F: Estimating the Amount of Corn Stover That Can Be Harvested in a Sustainable Manner (317-320) Appendix G: Life-Cycle Inputs for Production of Biomass (321-324) Appendix H: Background Information on the Economic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Supply (325-338) Appendix I: Modeling of Capital and Operating Costs and Carbon Emissions of Ethanol Plants with SuperPro Designer® (339-358) Appendix J: Resource Requirements for Production of Microbial Biomass (359-366) Appendix K: Nonquantified Uncertainties That Could Influence the Costs of Carbon Storage (367-370)

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts H Background Information on the Economic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Supply The tables in this appendix present the background information and assumptions that were used in the panel’s economic assessments and greenhouse gas emission analyses. They include comparisons of published and updated costs of harvest and maintenance (Table H.1), nutrient replacement (Table H.2), transportation for delivery (Tables H.3 and H.4), storage (Table H.5), and establishment and seeding (Table H.6) for different cellulosic feedstocks. Estimates of opportunity costs for cellulosic feedstocks are presented (Table H.7). The published yield values from which current and future projections were computed (Table H.8), and carbon inputs for feedstock production (Table H.9) and biomass refining (Table H.10) are also included.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.1 Estimated Costs of Harvest and Maintenance for Cellulosic Feedstocks Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost per Ton (cited $) Cost per Ton (2007$) Reference Corn stover Baling, stacking, grinding 26 45 Hess et al. (2007) Corn stover Collection 31–36 66–77 McAloon et al. (2000) Corn stover Collection 35–46 64–84 McAloon et al. (2000) Corn stover Collection 17.70 17.70 R. Perlack, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, presentation to the committee on November 19, 2007 Corn stover Up to storage 20–21 36–39 Sokhansanj and Turhollow (2002) Corn stover   28 36 Suzuki (2006) Corn stover Baling, staging 26 47 Aden et al. (2002) Corn stover Harvest 14 14 Edwards (2007) Switchgrass Collection 12–22 16–28 Kumar and Sokhansanj (2007) Switchgrass Harvest 32 32 Duffy (2007) Switchgrass Harvest 35 58 Khanna et al. (2008) Switchgrass Harvest, maintenance, establishment 123.5/acre 210/acre Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Switchgrass Harvest 15 26 Perrin et al. (2008) Miscanthus Harvest 33 54 Khanna et al. (2008) Miscanthus Harvest, maintenance, establishment 301/acre 512/acre Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Nonspecific   10–30 15–45 Mapemba et al. (2007) Nonspecific   23 38 Mapemba et al. (2008) Note: Harvest and maintenance costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel, machinery, labor prices from 1999 to 2007 (USSA-NASS, 2007a,b).

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.2 Estimated Costs of Nutrient Replacement for Cellulosic Feedstocks Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost per Ton (cited $) Cost per Ton (2007$) Reference Corn stover   10.2 14.1 Hoskinson et al. (2007) Corn stover   4.6 8.4 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Corn stover   7 14.4 Aden et al. (2002) Corn stover   4.2 4.2 Petrolia (2008) Corn stover   10 21 Perlack and Turhollow (2003) Corn stover Whole-plant harvest 9.7 13.3 Karlen and Birrell (Unpublished) Corn stover Cob, top 50% harvest 9.5 13.1 Karlen and Birrell (Unpublished) Corn stover Bottom 50% harvest 10.1 13.9 Karlen and Birrell (Unpublished) Switchgrass   6.7 12.1 Perrin et al. (2008) Switchgrass   10.8 19.77 Khanna et al. (2008) Miscanthus   2.5 4.6 Khanna et al. (2008) Note: Nutrient and replacement costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-fertilizer prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). TABLE H.3 Estimated Distance for Delivery of Cellulosic Feedstocks Distance (miles) Type Reference 46–134 Round-trip Mapemba et al. (2007) 22–62 One-way Perlack and Turhollow (2003) 22–61 One-way Perlack and Turhollow (2002) 50 Round-trip Khanna et al. (2008) 50 Max one-way English et al. (2006) 50 One-way Vadas et al. (2008)

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.4 Estimated Costs of Transportation for Delivery of Cellulosic Feedstocks Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost per Ton (cited $) Cost per Ton (2007$) Reference Corn stover Per ton 8.85 12.5 English et al. (2006) Corn stover Per ton 10.25 27 Hess et al. (2007) Corn stover DVCa 0.15 0.35 Kaylen et al. (2000) Corn stover Max DVC for positive NPV 0.28 0.66 Kaylen et al. (2000) Corn stover Per ton 10.8 10.8 Perlack (2007) Corn stover Per ton 13 31 Aden et al. (2002) Corn stover Per ton 4.2–10.5 11–27.7 Perlack and Turhollow (2002) Corn stover DVC 0.08–0.29 0.17–0.63 Kumar et al. (2005)   DFCb 4.5 9.8     DFC range 0–6 0–13.3   Corn stover DVC 0.18 0.32 Searcy et al. (2007)   DFC 4 7.3   Corn stover DVC 0.16 0.38 Kumar et al. (2003)   DFC 3.6 8.6   Corn stover DVC     Petrolia (2008)   0-25 miles 0.13–0.23 0.13–0.23     25-100 miles 0.10–0.19 0.10–0.19     >100 miles 0.09–0.16 0.09–0.16     DFC square bales 1.70 1.70     DFC round bales 3.10 3.10   Corn stover Per ton 10.9 13.8 Vadas et al. (2008) Switchgrass Per ton 14.75 14.75 Duffy (2007) Switchgrass Per ton 19.2–23 27–32.4 Kumar and Sokhansanj (2007) Switchgrass Per ton 13 28 Perrin et al. (2008) Switchgrass Per ton 10.9 13.8 Vadas et al. (2008) Switchgrass or Miscanthus Per ton for 50 miles 7.9 17.1 Khanna et al. (2008) Nonspecific Per ton 7.4–19.3 13.7–35.6 Mapemba et al. (2007) Nonspecific Per ton 14.5 31.5 Mapemba et al. (2008) Woody biomass Per ton   11–22 Summit Ridge Investments (2007) Note: Transportation costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-fuel prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aDVC, distance variable cost, per ton per mile. bDFC, distance fixed cost per ton.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.5 Estimated Storage Costs for Cellulosic Feedstocks Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost per Ton (cited $) Cost per Ton (2007$) Reference Corn stover   4.44 5.64 Hess et al. (2007) Corn stover Round bales 6.82 6.82 Petrolia (2008)   Square bales 12.93 12.93   Switchgrass   16.67 16.67 Duffy (2007) Switchgrass   4.14 5.18 Khanna et al. (2008) Miscanthus   4.40 5.50 Khanna et al. (2008) Nonspecific   2 2.18 Mapemba et al. (2008) Note: Storage costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-building material prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). TABLE H.6 Estimated Costs of Establishment and Seeding for Cellulosic Feedstocks Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Land Rent Included Cost per Acre (cited $) Cost per Acre (2007$) Reference Switchgrass   Yes 200 200 Duffy (2007) Switchgrass   No 25.76 46 Perrin et al. (2008)   Yes 85.46 153 Switchgrass PVa per ton No 7.21/ton 12.6/ton Khanna et al. (2008) 10-year PV per acre   142.3 249 Amortized       4% over 10 years   17.3 30.25 8% over 10 years   20.7 36.25 Switchgrass   Yes 72.5–110 88.5–134 Vadas et al. (2008) Miscanthus PV per ton No 2.29/ton 4/ton Khanna et al. (2008) 20-year PV per acre   261 457 Amortized       4% over 20 years   19 33.2 8% over 20 years   26.20 45.87 Miscanthus Total No 1206–2413   Lewandowski (2003) Amortized       4% over 20 years   88–175 176–350 8% over 20 years   121–242 242–484 Note: Establishment and seeding costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel and seed prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aPV denotes present value.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.7 Estimated Opportunity Costs for Cellulosic Feedstocks (Net Returns Forgone by Producer from Not Using Cropland to Produce Next Best Crop or Product) Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost per Acre (cited $) Cost per Acre (2007$) Reference Corn stover Feed value 59.5/ton 59.5/ton Edwards (2007)   2.4 tons/acre 142.8 142.8   Corn stover Lost profits 22–58 22–58 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Switchgrass Lost profits 78–231 78–231 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Switchgrass or Miscanthus Lost profits 78 76 Khanna et al. (2008) Miscanthus Lost profits 78–231 78–231 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Nonspecific Lost CRPa payments if harvest every year 35 36 Mapemba et al. (2008) Nonspecific Lost CRP if harvest once every 3 years 10.1 10.4 Mapemba et al. (2008) Nonspecific Non-CRP land crops 10/ton 10.3/ton Mapemba et al. (2008) Nonspecific   78 76 Khanna et al. (2008) Woody biomass Alternative use   0–25 Summit Ridge Investments (2007) Note: Opportunity costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-land rent prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aConservation Reserve Program.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.8 Yield Values and Ranges for Different Bioenergy Feedstocks Reported in Literature Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield (tons/acre) Reference Corn stover Soil tolerance 2.02 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Corn stover   2.4 Edwards (2007) Corn stover 2000–2005 mean yields for Wisconsin 2.31–3 Vadas et al. (2008) Switchgrass Iowa, Illinois field trials 2.58 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Switchgrass   4 Duffy (2007) Switchgrass Farm-scale (northern South Dakota to southern Nebraska) 2.23 (5-year average) (Range, 1.7–2.7) Perrin et al. (2008) 3.12 (10-year average) (Range, 2.6–3.5) Switchgrass   3.8 Khanna et al. (2008) 19.74 (10-year PV) Switchgrass Nitrogen level 4–5.8 Vadas et al. (2008) Switchgrass Research blocks 7.14 (average) Lewandowski et al. (2003) 9.8 (best) Switchgrass   3.6–8.9 (previous) Shinners et al. (2006) Plot trials 2.3–4 (own) Switchgrass Plot trials 6.33 Fike et al. (2006) 4.64–8.5 Switchgrass Field trials   Berdahl et al. (2005) Mean 1.12–4.1 Strains:   Dacotah 1.11–4.22 ND3743 0.91–3.92 Summer 1.18–4.38 Sunburst 1.43–5.57 Trailblazer 1.15–4.88 Shawnee 1.06–4.5 OK NU-2 0.89–4.18 Cave-in-Rock 0.97–4.27 Switchgrass Plot trials   Vogel et al. (2002) Iowa 5.2–5.6 Nebraska 4.7–5 Switchgrass Peer-reviewed articles 4.46 Heaton et al. (2004a)

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield (tons/acre) Reference Switchgrass Farm trials     Strains:   Alamo (1 cut) 5.4–8.5 Kanlow (1 cut) 5.2–6.9 Cave-in-rock (2 cut) 6–8.3 Switchgrass U.S. average 4.2 McLaughlin et al. (2002) Grasses County-scale in Pacific Northwest 3.4–4.1 (perennial ryegrass) Banowetz et al. (2008) 4.13–6.2 (tall fescue) 2.2–3.36 (creeping red fescue) Miscanthus Simulated 8.9 Khanna and Dhungana (2007) Miscanthus   14.5 average Khanna et al. (2008) 12–17 range 114.58 (20-year PV) Miscanthus Field experiment 5.71 (14-year) Christian et al. (2008) 3.43–11.73 (3-year) Miscanthus   4.5–13.4 Lewandowski et al. (2003) Miscanthus Projection 13.36 (mean) Heaton et al. (2004b) 10.93–17.81 Miscanthus Peer-reviewed articles 9.8 Heaton et al. (2004a)

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.9 Carbon Inputs to Biomass Agricultural Production Source of Input (kg CO2 eq/ha)a Corn Ethanol Cellulosic (Switchgrass) Nitrogen-fertilizer emissions 1638 547 Phosphorus 102 3.4 Potassium 70 2.4 Lime 228 — Herbicide 69 10.4 Insecticide 5.4 — Seed — — Transport emissions 39 3 Gasoline 114 — Diesel 248 341 Natural gas 46 — Liquefied petroleum gas 61 — Electricity 56 42 Energy used in irrigation 4 — Labor transportation — — Farm machinery 21 21 CO2 from land-use change (kg/ha) — — Total from agricultural production 2703 971 Conversion per acre (0.405 ha/acre, 2.24 lb/kg) 2452 lb CO2 eq/ac 881 lb CO2 eq/ac Conversion per ton (assume 4 tons/acre) — 220 lb CO2 eq/ton aUnless noted otherwise. Source: Farrell et al., 2006.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts TABLE H.10 Carbon Inputs to Biomass Refining, Including Transportation of Biomass Source of Input (g CO2 eq/L)a Corn Ethanol Cellulosic Transport of feedstock to biorefinery 49 51 Primary energy — — Diesel — 5 Coal 885 — Natural gas 365 — Electricity — — Biomass — — Capital (plant, equipment) 8.8 29 Process water 25 19 Effluent restoration (BOD at PWTPsb) 20 20 Transportation of chemicals to plant — — Total biorefinery phase 1,353 124 Coproduct credits 525 106 Total biorefinery phase accounting for coproduct 828 g CO2 eq/L 18 g CO2 eq/L Conversions:     Initial value     [0.4/0.4]/0.38 L/kg 828 g CO2 eq/L 18 g CO2 eq/L [8,746/8,389]/13,450 kg/ha ~331.2 g CO2 eq/kg ~6.84 g CO2 eq/kg 0.405 ha/acre ~2,896,675 g CO2 eq/ha ~91,998 g CO2 eq/ha 0.001 kg/g ~1,173,153 g CO2 eq/ac ~37,259 g CO2 eq/ac   ~1,173 kg CO2e/ac ~37.3 kg CO2 eq/ac TOTAL (agriculture phase + biorefinery) 4,307 lb CO2 eq/ac 964 lb CO2 eq/ac Conversion per ton: (assume 4 tons/acre) — 241 lb CO2 eq/ton aUnless noted otherwise. bBiochemical oxygen demand of effluent at wastewater treatment plants. Source: Farrell et al., 2006.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts REFERENCES Aden, A., M. Ruth, K. Ibsen, J. Jechura, K. Neeves, J. Sheehan, B. Wallace, L. Montague, A. Slayton, and J. Lukas. 2002. Lignocellulosic Biomass to Ethanol Process Design and Economics Utilizing Co-Current Dilute Acid Prehydrolysis and Enzymatic Hydrolysis for Corn Stover. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Banowetz, G.M., A. Boatang, J.J. Steiner, S.M. Griffith, V. Sethi, and H. El-Nashaar. 2008. Assessment of straw biomass feedstock resources in the Pacific Northwest. Biomass and Bioenergy 32:629-634. Berdahl, J., A. Frank, J. Krupinsky, P. Carr, J. Hanson, and H. Johnson. 2005. Biomass yield, phenology, and survival of diverse switchgrass cultivars and experimental strains in western North Dakota. Agronomy Journal 97:549-555. Christian, D., A. Riche, and N. Yates. 2008. Growth, yield and mineral content of Miscanthus x Giganteus grown as a biofuel for 14 successful harvests. Industrial Crops and Products 28:320-327. Duffy, M. 2007. Estimated Costs for Production, Storage, and Transportation of Switchgrass. Iowa State University. Available at http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/crops/pdf/a1-22.pdf. Accessed April 22, 2008. Edwards, W. 2007. Estimating a Value for Corn Stover. Iowa State University. Available at http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/crops/pdf/a1-70.pdf. Accessed May 22, 2008. English, B.C., D.G. de la Torre Ugarte, K. Jensen, C. Hellwinckel, J. Menard, B. Wilson, R. Roberts, and M. Walsh. 2006. 25% Renewable Energy for the United States by 2025: Agricultural and Economic Impacts. Knoxville: University of Tennessee. Farrell, A., R. Plevin, B. Turner, A. Jones, M. O’Hare, and D. Kammen. 2006. Ethanol can contribute to energy and environmental goals. Science 311:506-509. Fike, J., D. Parrish, D. Wolf, J. Balasko, J. Green, Jr., M. Rasnake, and J. Reynolds. 2006. Long-term yield potential of switchgrass-for-biofuel systems. Biomass and Bioenergy 30:198-206. Heaton, E., T. Voight, and S.P. Long. 2004a. A quantitative review comparing the yields of two candidate C4 perennial biomass crops in relation to nitrogen, temperature and water. Biomass and Bioenergy 27:21-30. Heaton, E.A., J. Clifton-Brown, T.B. Voight, M.B. Jones, and S.P. Long. 2004b. Miscanthus for renewable energy generation: European Union experience and projections for Illinois. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 9:433-451. Hess, J.R., C.T. Wright, and K.L. Kenney. 2007. Cellulosic biomass feedstocks and logistics for ethanol production. Biomass, Bioproduction and Biorefining 1:181-190. Hoskinson, R.L., D.L. Karlen, S.J. Birrell, C.W. Radtke, and W.W. Wilhelm. 2007. Engineering, nutrient removal, and feedstock conversion evaluations of four corn stover harvest scenarios. Biomass and Bioenergy 31:126-136.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts Karlen, D.L., and S.J. Birrell. Unpublished. Crop Residue—What’s It Worth? U.S. Department of Agriculture and Iowa State University. Available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/Biomass_2009_Sustainabiliy_III_Karlen.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2009. Kaylen, M., D.L. Van Dyne, Y.S. Choi, and M. Blase. 2000. Economic feasibility of producing ethanol from lignocellulosic feedstocks. Bioresource Technology 72:19-32. Khanna, M., and B. Dhungana. 2007. Economics of Alternative Feedstocks in Corn-Based Ethanol in Illinois and the US: A Report from Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois. Available at http://www.farmdoc.uiuc.edu/policy/research_reports/ethanol_report/Ethanol%20Report.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2009. Khanna, M., B. Dhungana, and J. Clifton-Brown. 2008. Costs of producing Miscanthus and switchgrass for bioenergy in Illinois. Biomass and Bioenergy 32(6):482-493. Kumar, A., and S. Sokhansanj. 2007. Switchgrass (Panicum vigratum, L.) delivery to a biorefinery using Integrated Biomass Supply Analysis and Logistics (IBSAL) Model. Bioresource Technology 98:1033-1044. Kumar, A., J. Cameron, and P. Flynn. 2003. Biomass power cost and optimum plant size in western Canada. Biomass and Bioenergy 24(6):445-464. Lewandowski, I., J. Scurlock, E. Lindvall, and M. Christou. 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy 25(4):335-361. Mapemba, L.D., F.M. Epplin, R.L. Huhnke, and C.M. Taliaferro. 2008. Herbaceous plant biomass harvest and delivery cost with harvest segmented by month and number of harvest machines endogenously determined. Biomass and Bioenergy 32:1016-1027. Mapemba, L., F. Epplin, C. Taliaferro, and R. Huhnke. 2007. Biorefinery feedstock production on Conservation Reserve Program Land. Review of Agricultural Economics 29(2):227-246. McAloon, A., F. Taylor, W. Yee, K. Ibsen, and R. Wooley. 2000. Determining the Cost of Producing Ethanol from Corn Starch and Lignocellulosic Feedstocks. Golden, Colo.: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. McLaughlin, S.B., D.G. de la Torre Ugarte, C.T. Garten, Jr., L.R. Lynd, M.A. Sanderson, V.R. Tolbert, and D.D. Wolf. 2002. High-value renewable energy from prairie grasses. Environmental Science and Technology 36:2122-2129. Perlack, R., and A. Turhollow. 2002. Assessment of Options for the Collection, Handling, and Transport of Corn Stover. Oak Ridge, Tenn.: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Perlack, R., and A. Turhollow. 2003. Feedstock cost analysis of corn stover residues for further processing. Energy 28:1395-1403.

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Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal and Biomass: Technological Status, Costs, and Environmental Impacts Perlack, R. 2007. Overview of Plant Feedstock Production for Biofuels: Current Technologies, Challenges, and Potential Improvement. Presentation to the National Research Council Committee on Alternative Liquid Transportation Fuels. Washington, D.C., November 19, 2007. Perrin, R., K. Vogel, M. Schmer, and R. Mitchell. 2008. Farm-scale production cost of switchgrass for biomass. Bioenergy Research 1:91-97. Petrolia, D.R. 2008. The economics of harvesting and transporting corn stover to fuel ethanol: A case study for Minnesota. Biomass and Bioenergy 32(7):603-612. Searcy, E., P. Flynn, E. Ghafoori, and A. Kumar. 2007. The relative cost of biomass energy transport. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 137-140(1-12):639-652. Shinners, K.J., G.C. Boettcher, R.E. Muck, P.J. Weimer, M.D. Casler. 2006. Drying, harvesting, and storage characteristics of perennial grasses as biomass feedstocks. ASABE Paper No. 061012. St. Joseph, Mich.: American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. Sokhansanj, S., and A. Turhollow. 2002. Baseline cost for corn stover collection. Applied Engineering and Agriculture 18:525-530. Summit Ridge Investments, LLC. 2007. Eastern Hardwood Forest Region Woody Biomass Energy Opportunity. Granville, Vt: Summit Ridge Investments. Suzuki, Y. 2006. Estimating the Cost of Transporting Corn Stalks in the Midwest. Ames: Iowa State University College of Business: Business and Partnership Development. USDA-NASS (U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 2007a. Agricultural Prices 2006 Summary. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. USDA-NASS. 2007b. Agricultural Prices December 2007. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. Vadas, P.A., K.H. Barnett, and D.J. Undersander. 2008. Economics and energy of ethanol production from alfalfa, corn, and switchgrass in the Upper Midwest, USA. Bioenergy Research 1:44-55. Vogel, K., J. Brejda, D. Walters, and D. Buxton. 2002. Switchgrass biomass production in the Midwest USA: Harvest and nitrogen management. Agronomy Journal 94:413-420.

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