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Appendix A
Glossary of Terms
Anthropogenic—Caused or produced by humans.
Arboviruses—Viruses transmitted mainly by arthropods.
Biosafety levels—Recommended containment or biosafety levels (BSL) that
describe safe methods for managing infectious materials in the laboratory
environment where they are being handled or maintained.
Biosecurity—A strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the
policy and regulatory frameworks (including instruments and activities)
that analyze and manage risks in the sectors of food safety, animal life and
health, and plant life and health, including associated environmental risk.
Biosecurity covers the introduction of plant pests, animal pests and diseases,
and zoonoses, the introduction and release of genetically modified organ-
isms and their products, and the introduction and management of invasive
alien species and genotypes.
BSL laboratory designations (BSL 1–4)—There are four BSLs, with BSL-1
representing a basic level of containment relying on standard microbiologi-
cal practices and BSL-4 representing the most advanced containment when
working with dangerous and exotic agents that pose a high individual risk
of life-threatening disease (which may be transmitted via the aerosol route
and for which no vaccine or therapy is available). The increasing numbers
correspond to the increasing levels of protection for personnel and the en-
vironment. The purpose is to reduce or eliminate exposure of laboratory
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0 GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE TO zOONOTIC DISEASES
workers, other persons, and the outside environment to potentially hazard-
ous agents. Each combination is specifically appropriate for the operations
performed, the documented or suspected routes of transmission of the
infectious agents, and the laboratory function or activity.
Bush animals—Species include apes, other primates, ungulates, rodents,
and birds. The species hunted depends on the geographical area and the
hunters’ preferences, cultural practices, and prohibitions.
Bushmeat—Term commonly used for meat of terrestrial wild animals,
killed for subsistence or commercial purposes throughout the humid tropics
of the Americas, Asia, and Africa.
CITES—The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora is an international agreement between govern-
ments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants does not threaten their survival. CITES was drafted as
a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN
(The World Conservation Union). The text of the Convention was agreed
upon at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, DC,
on March 3, 1973, and on July 1, 1975, CITES entered in force. It is an
international agreement to which countries adhere voluntarily, and is now
made up of 175 parties.
Codex Alimentarius—A collection of internationally recognized standards,
codes of practice, guidelines, and other recommendations relating to food,
food production, and food safety. Its texts are developed and maintained by
the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a body that was established in 1963
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and
the World Health Organization (WHO). The Commission’s main aims are
stated as being to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices
in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by
the World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the
resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection.
Domestic animal—Animals that have been bred selectively in captivity and
thereby modified from their ancestors for use by humans who control the
animals’ breeding and food supply.
Driver—A factor that causes a zoonotic disease to emerge or reemerge.
Emerging infection—Either a newly recognized, clinically distinct infectious
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APPENDIX A
disease, or a known infectious disease whose reported incidence is increas-
ing in a given place or among a specific population.
Endemic—Restricted or peculiar to a locality or region. Endemic infection
refers to a sustained, relatively stable pattern of infection in a specified
population.
Epidemic—The occurrence of an illness (or other health-related event) in a
community or region clearly in excess of normal expectancy.
Food security—Comprises access, availability, and utilization issues. Nutri-
tion security is achieved when reliable access to appropriately nutritious
food is coupled with a sanitary environment, adequate health services, and
care to ensure a healthy and active life for all household members.
GDP—Gross domestic product is the market value of all final goods and
services made within the borders of a nation in a year.
Globalization—A widely used term to describe the process by which people
of the world are unified into a single society and function together. This
process is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic,
technological, sociocultural, political, and biological factors.
Host—Person or other living animal that affords subsistence or lodgment
to an infectious agent under natural conditions.
Hotspot—Region where factor(s) are most densely aggregated, most highly
prevalent, and where risk of a (disease) event is most intense.
Human–animal interface—Ways in which humans and animals interact,
which may include, but are not limited to, cohabitation (domestic and
exotic animals as pets or harvesting parts such as wool to make products
for human use) or coexistence (with juxtaposed or integrated habitats), the
production of food animals or hunting, scientific research, wildlife conser-
vation, and public education (in zoos or sanctuaries).
Integrated disease surveillance system for emerging zoonotic diseases—A
system of shared and/or integrated, linked, clinical, epidemiological, lab-
oratory, and risk behaviour components of human and animal disease
surveillance systems, such that the processes of information collection,
management, collation, analysis, presentation/reporting, and dissemination
of data from human and animal systems are brought together to be used in
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GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE TO zOONOTIC DISEASES
decisionmaking for response by human and animal health authorities from
local through international levels.
International Health Regulations—Originally adopted in 1969, World
Health Organization (WHO) member states approved a revised set of these
regulations (known as IHR 2005) that went into effect in 2007. IHR 2005
establishes WHO’s central role in coordinating the control of disease and
facilitating disease surveillance and response efforts against the spread of
disease at the global level. Under the regulations, WHO requires member
states to report all events that may constitute a “public health emergency of
international concern,” which includes a (1) human and animal health risk
to other states through the international spread of disease, and (2) an event
that potentially could require a coordinated international response.
Necropsy—An examination and dissection of a dead body to determine
cause of death or the changes produced by disease.
Notifiable disease—A disease for which regular, frequent, timely informa-
tion on individual cases is considered necessary to prevent and control that
disease. Each year a list of nationally notifiable diseases is agreed on and
maintained by the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists and the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Diseases that are con-
sidered nationally notifiable may or may not be designated by a given state
as notifiable (reportable) in the state. States may use the national notifiable
diseases list as well as other information, such as state-specific health pri-
orities, to guide their determination of which conditions/diseases to make
notifiable in their state. Thus, the list of state-specific notifiable diseases
may vary across states and in a given state; the list may vary over time as
well. Disease reporting is currently mandated by legislation or regulation
only at the local or state level.
One health—The American Veterinary Medical Association defines “one
health” as the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines working locally,
nationally, and globally to attain optimal health for people, animals, and
our environment. The concept was first proposed by veterinary epidemi-
ologist and parasitologist Dr. Calvin W. Schwabe, who used the term “one
medicine” in the 1960s to capture the vital importance of considering
medical and veterinary issues jointly in the study of zoonotic diseases. This
multidisciplinary approach has been captured by recent “one health” initia-
tives. An example of such an initiative, “One world-one health,” which is
a trademark of the Wildlife Conservation Society, has developed a series of
symposiums under this concept.
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APPENDIX A
Pandemic—A global disease outbreak.
Pathogen—Biological agent capable of causing disease.
Pathogenesis—The entry, primary replication, spread to target organs, and
establishment of infection.
Prion—A microscopic protein particle similar to a virus but lacking nucleic
acid, thought to be the infectious agent responsible for scrapie and certain
other degenerative diseases of the nervous system.
Production system—A production system clusters production units (herds,
farms, ranches), which, because of the similar environment in which they
operate, can be expected to produce according to similar production func-
tions. This similar environment can be characterized by the physical (cli-
mate, soils, and infrastructure) and biological environments (plant biomass
production, food animal species composition), economic and social condi-
tions (prices, population pressure and markets, human skills, and access to
technology and other services), and policies (land tenure, trade, and subsidy
policies).
Reemerging—Known diseases that have reappeared after a significant de-
cline in incidence.
Regime—Principles, norms, rules, and decisionmaking procedures around
which actor expectations converge in a given issue or area.
Reservoir—Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or substance (or
combination of these) in which an infectious agent may reside.
Response—Interventions that involve human and animal health systems
and practitioners using disease surveillance information to plan and execute
activities that prevent infectious diseases from affecting human and animal
populations, protect such populations against exposure to pathogenic mi-
crobes that evade prevention measures, and control morbidity and mortal-
ity among populations infected by pathogenic agents.
Risk assessment—The process of quantifying the probability of a harmful
effect to individuals or populations from certain human activities.
Sanction(s)—General trade restrictions between nations. Economic sanctions
include trade bans, tariffs, import duties, and import or export quotas.
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GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE TO zOONOTIC DISEASES
Smallholder poultry keeper—Describes the practice of individuals and fami-
lies keeping small flocks of poultry or other fowl in their backyards for their
consumption or as a means of economic livelihood.
Spillover—Spillover occurs when epidemics in a host population are driven
not by transmission within that population but by transmission from a
reservoir population. A pathogen typically reaches high prevalence in a
reservoir and then spills over into the other host.
SPS Agreement—The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phyto-
sanitary Measures is an international treaty of the World Trade Organiza-
tion (WTO). It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and entered into force with the
establishment of WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS Agreement,
WTO sets constraints on member states’ policies relating to food safety
as well as animal and plant health about imported pests and diseases. It
contains specific rules for countries that want to restrict trade to ensure
food safety and the protection of human life from zoonoses, although it
is a fundamental requirement that member states have a scientific basis to
justify trade measure aimed at mitigating a health risk.
Surveillance system—A system for public health surveillance is a group of
integrated and quality-assured, cost-effective, and legally and professionally
acceptable processes designed for the purpose of identifying in an ongo-
ing, flexible, standardized, timely, simple, sensitive, and predictive manner
the emergence of meaningful epidemiologic phenomena and their specific
associations. These processes include human, animals, laboratory, and in-
formatics activities to skillfully manage information derived from an entire
defined community (or a subgroup thereof that is sufficiently representative
and large) and to disseminate that information in a timely and useful man-
ner to those able to implement appropriate public health interventions.
Sustainability—In a broad sense, sustainability refers to the capacity for
systems to remain diverse and productive over time. It requires the integra-
tion of social, economic, and environmental spheres such that the needs of
the present are met without compromising the needs of future generations.
A sustainable surveillance system would include long-term financial invest-
ment and infrastructure development and maintenance.
TBT Agreement—The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an
international treaty of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It was nego-
tiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) and entered into force with the establishment of WTO at
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APPENDIX A
the beginning of 1995. It is in place to ensure that regulations, standards,
testing, and certification procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles
to trade. The agreement prohibits technical requirements created in order
to limit trade, as opposed to technical requirements created for legitimate
purposes such as consumer or environmental protection.
Transboundary—Diseases that are of significant economic, trade, and/or
food security importance for a considerable number of countries, which
can easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic proportions and
where control or management, including exclusion, requires cooperation
between several countries.
TRIPS Agreement—The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intel-
lectual Property Rights is an international agreement administered by the
World Trade Organization (WTO) that sets down minimum standards for
many forms of intellectual property regulation. It was negotiated at the
end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) in 1994. It contains several provisions that enable governments to
implement their intellectual property regimes in a manner which takes ac-
count of immediate and longer-term public health considerations.
Vector—An organism, such as an insect, that transmits a pathogen from
one host to another.
Vector-borne disease—A disease in which the pathogenic microorganism is
transmitted from an infected individual to another individual by an arthro-
pod or other agent, sometimes with other animals serving as intermediary
hosts.
Virulence—Degree of pathogenicity of an infectious agent, indicated by
the case fatality rates and/or its ability to invade and damage tissue of the
host.
Xenotransplantation—Any procedure that involves the transplantation,
implantation, or infusion into a human recipient of either (1) live cells, tis-
sues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source, or (2) human body fluids,
cells, tissues, or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live nonhuman
animal cells, tissues, or organs.
Wild animal—Terrestrial animals that are untamed or undomesticated.
They are killed for subsistence or commercial purposes throughout the
humid tropics of the Americas, Asia, and Africa.
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GLOBAL SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE TO zOONOTIC DISEASES
Zoonoses—Any infection or infectious disease transmissible under natural
conditions from animals to humans or those shared between humans and
animals. Zoonoses may be bacterial, viral, or parasitic, or may involve
unconventional agents.
Zoonotic disease surveillance—The ongoing systematic and timely collec-
tion, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of information about the
occurrence, distribution, and determinants of diseases transmitted between
humans and animals. Zoonotic disease surveillance reaches its full poten-
tial when it is used to plan, implement, and evaluate responses to reduce
infectious disease morbidity and mortality through a functionally integrated
human and animal health system.
