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America’s Energy Future: Technology and Transformation - Summary Edition
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Index
A
Advanced materials, 29, 74, 87
Air-quality standards, 88
Air transportation
energy efficiency improvements, 45
freight, 86
passenger, 86 n.8
Algal biodiesel, 75, 89
Alternative transportation fuels.
See also Biofuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels;
Corn ethanol;
Light-duty vehicles
barriers to deployment, 93-94
biochemical conversion, 67, 90-91, 93
carbon capture and storage, 4, 5, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73, 78, 94
carbon price, 38 n.1, 93
CO2 emissions, 4, 62, 71-73
coal liquefaction, 91
compressed natural gas, 94
conversion technologies, 90-92;
see also Biochemical;
Thermochemical costs, 66-67, 92-93
deployment scenarios, 93-94
dimethyl ether, 94
findings, 3-4, 62-67, 73
hydrogen, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94
infrastructure for distribution, 90, 93
methanol, 72, 94
panel report, 31, 81
petroleum substitution potential, 73
RD&D, 74-75
synthetic (GTL) diesel fuel, 94
American Electric Power, 100
American Iron and Steel Institute, 87
Appliances and electronics
energy savings, 41
information availability, 87-88
load management technologies, 84
Australia, 20
B
Battery technologies
costs, 85
deployment timeframe, 116
for LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85
performance capabilities, 85
R&D opportunities, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85
for T&D system storage, 6, 51, 61, 78
Behavior. See Consumer behavior
Biobutanol, 89
Biochemical conversion of fuel
cellulosic ethanol, 67, 90-91, 93
corn ethanol, 90, 91
costs, 90, 92-93
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and greenhouse gases, 90
RD&D, 90
supply of fuel from, 90-91
transport and distribution challenges, 90
Biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89
Biofuels.
See also Biochemical conversion;
Biomass;
Biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Corn ethanol
advanced, 66
algal biodiesel, 75, 89
biobutanol, 89
from CO2 feedstocks, 74-75
consumption, 21, 37
hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4
potential of, 66, 73
R&D, 74-75
Biomass
carbon issues, 72
co-fed coal, see Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuel
consumption, 17, 18
cost of energy from, 58
on CRP lands, 89
electricity generation, see Biopower
food/feed crop displacement, 89
greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72
incentives for growers, 89-90
industrial use, 17
non-electricity applications, 32
supply, 32, 37, 66, 77, 89-90
sustainable production, 89
Biomass-to-liquid fuels.
See also Biochemical conversion
costs, 67, 91
greenhouse gas emissions, 71, 91
supply of fuel from, 37
thermochemical conversion, 91
Biopower
build time, 128
capacity, 128
carbon balance, 69
cost estimates, 57, 58, 126
environmental impacts, 101
feedstock supply, 32
landfill gas fuel, 97
municipal solid waste fuel, 89, 97
sources, 97
supply of electricity, 36, 51
technology description, 97
wood-based, 97
Biotechnology, 4
Brazil, 20
Buildings sector.
See also Appliances;
Commercial;
Residential
advanced technologies, 83-84
barriers to improving energy efficiency, 77
capital investment needs, 83
combined heat and power production, 83
conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83
consumption of energy, 2, 14, 83
cooling and heating systems, 14, 41, 47, 83
cost-effectiveness of improvements, 41
cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49
drivers for improving, 84
electricity consumption, 41, 42, 47
energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88
energy efficiency, 2, 38-39 n.1, 40-41, 42, 47-49, 87-88
findings, 2, 47-49
integrated (whole-building) approaches, 84
lighting, 47, 50, 83, 84
natural gas consumption, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 41, 48-49
payback period for technologies, 82
petroleum consumption, 17, 24
potential energy savings, 47-49, 50, 83
projected energy demand, 41, 42
regulatory policies, 87
retail price of energy, 47-48, 83
windows, 84
Bush (George H.W.), administration, 26
Bush (George W.), administration, 26
Business-as-usual reference case, xi, 36
alternative transportation fuels, 93-94
CO2 emissions, 2, 11
deployment of technologies, 93-94
energy efficiency improvement, 2
energy supply and consumption, 12, 36
fossil fuels, 11
industrial sector, 2
transportation sector, 2
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C
Canada
natural gas exports, 15, 102-103
Cap and trade programs, 38 n.1
Carbon capture and storage (CCS).
See also Geologic storage of CO2
capture-ready plants, 3, 39, 51
CO2 compression, 69-70, 105, 106 n.13
costs, 52, 67, 91
and costs of electricity, 16
demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109
findings, 5, 39
and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72
importance, 30, 92
R&D, 107-108
retrofitting plants for, 3, 5, 51, 53-54, 69-70, 72, 104, 105
safety issues, 16
status, 16, 39
strategies, 74
thermochemical conversion of biofuels and, 74, 91-92, 94
Carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1.
See also Cap and trade;
Carbon price
Carbon dioxide emissions.
See also Carbon capture and storage;
Geologic storage of CO2;
Greenhouse gas emissions;
individual energy sources and sectors
alternative transportation fuels, 62, 64, 66
annual U.S. emissions, 68
cap and trade programs, 38 n.1
carbon prices, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93
by energy source, 72
negative, 69, 71, 72, 91
policies and regulations, 33, 52,
timeframe for reducing, 68, 71
trends, 11
Carbon dioxide feedstock, 75
Carbon dioxide injection for enhanced oil recovery, 91
Carbon price/taxes, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 105
Carter administration, 26
Cellulosic ethanol
carbon capture and storage, 5, 65, 66
conversion technologies, 3, 67, 89, 90-91, 93
costs, 92-93, 125, 127
deployment, 92-93, 125, 127
economic competitiveness, 66, 67, 92-93
feedstock, 4
greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 66, 71-72
petroleum replacement potential, 3-4, 63, 66, 90, 91
production capacity, 90-91
RD&D, 6, 64, 74
supply potential, 63, 66, 129
Cement industry, 44, 86, 87
Chemical manufacturing, 86
China, 20, 77 n.19
Chlorofluorocarbons, 11 n.3
Clean Air Act, 26, 78
Clean Air Interstate Rule, 40
Climate change, 11 n.3, 25
Clinton administration, 26
Coal
air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
as alternative fuel source, 74,
see also Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid
carbon capture and storage, 3, 39, 51, 53, 58, 68, 69-70
CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 68, 69-70
co-fed biomass and, 91
consumption, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36
costs, 16, 52, 57, 58
electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 74
environmental impacts, 16, 52, 92
findings, 3
industry use, 14, 17, 24
infrastructure constraints, 13, 16, 23
integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
liquefaction, 91;
see also Coal-to-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels
oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104
prices, 16, 25, 59
production (domestic), 66
pulverized coal (PC) plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
RD&D, 6, 64, 74
reserves and resources, 16, 89, 92
retirement of plants, 69, 105
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retrofitted/repowered plants with CCS, 53, 69-70, 71, 77
supercritical PC, 105
T&D system, 16
ultrasupercritical PC, 70, 74, 104-105, 128
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels
carbon capture and storage, 4, 65, 66, 73, 91-92, 94
conversion technologies, 3-4, 74, 91-92
costs, 67, 91, 92-93
demonstrations, 66
deployment, 93-94
environmental impacts, 4, 92
feedstock requirements, 66, 92
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 66, 71-72, 91-92
petroleum replacement potential, 4, 65, 66
production capacity, 5, 91, 92
siting of plants, 92
supply, 32, 37, 63-64, 65
Coal-to-liquid fuels
carbon capture and storage, 64, 65, 72, 73, 94
costs, 66, 67, 92-93
greenhouse gas emissions, 64, 72
supply, 37, 63-64, 65
Combined-heat-and-power systems (cogeneration), 44, 51, 86, 87, 88
Commercial buildings.
See also Lighting
consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37
energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49
energy management and control systems, 83-84
low-energy buildings, 84
Concentrating solar power
cooling systems, 84
costs, 58
dish-Stirling engine systems, 97
electricity generating capacity, 96
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
high-temperature chemical processing, 97, 101
optical materials, 97
parabolic troughs, 97
power towers, 97
technology description, 97
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 89
Conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83
Consumer behavior
energy-efficient technologies, 49, 50, 79
Consumption. See Energy consumption
Context for the report
aspects not assessed, 31-33
challenges to sustainable transformation, 25-27
charge to the committee, 10, 30-33, 36
cost estimates, 32-33
current U.S. energy system, 11-25
panel reports, 31
strategy of the committee, 30-33
technology role, 27-30
timeframes, 30
Cooling systems, 14, 41, 47, 83.
See also Heating and cooling systems
Corn ethanol
CO2 emissions, 72
consumption, 17
costs, 67
plant build rates, 90-91, 127
production capacity, 90-91, 129
social and environmental concerns, 63, 89
sustainability, 89
Cost-effectiveness of energy-efficiency technologies, 2, 40-41, 49, 82
Costs.
See also specific sectors, resources, and technologies
before-tax discount rate, 126-127
conditional assumptions, 32-33
of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49
debt/equity, 126-127
externalities, 14 n.7, 29
feedstock and food costs, 121, 124-125
financing period, 122, 126-127
levelized cost of electricity, 55-60
life-cycle, 50, 56
limitations, 121, 124-125
methodologies for estimating, 32-33, 55-56, 120-131
overnight costs, 122, 126-127
plant life, 121, 126-127
plant maturity, 121, 124-125
plant size, 121, 124-125
reference scenario, 120
simultaneous expansion and modernization of T&D system, 61
site-dependent impacts, 57
source of, 120-121
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source of supply estimates, 122, 126-127
uncertainties in estimates, 56, 59
underlying assumptions, 32
Critical technologies, 30
D
Delivered electricity, 42, 43
Demand. See Energy demand;
Electricity demand
Demand-side management, 88
smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118
Demonstrations. See Research, development, and demonstrations
Deployment of new technologies, general.
See also specific technologies and energy sources
accelerated, 6, 35, 37-38, 39, 76-79
barriers to, 60, 76-79, 87-88, 93-94
consumer resistance to, 35, 50
coupling energy-supply and supporting technologies, 78
“crash” effort, 35
economic effects on end-users, 35, 50
industrial capacity and personnel for, 77-78
options, 38-39
parallel tracks, 30, 57
portfolio approach, 68
readiness for, 38, 39
siting concerns, 57, 60
supply factors, 77-78
timeframes for, 35
turnover rate of infrastructure and, 77
Diesel fuel
biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89
supply, 37
Dimethyl ether, 94
E
Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study/Joint Coordinated System Planning Study, 100
Economic growth, 25
Economic recession, xii, 15, 77, 95
Electricity consumption
energy efficiency savings, 40-41
by sector, 41, 42, 47
Electricity demand
electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 44-45
energy-efficiency technologies and, 32, 44-45
T&D system and, 27
Electricity generation.
See also Nuclear energy
age of baseload plants, 23
air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
baseload, 57, 58-59, 60
biomass, 51, 57, 58
carbon capture and storage, 78, 107-108
coal-fired plants, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51-52, 53, 57, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 74, 104-105
combined-heat and power plants, 51
competitiveness of technologies, 51, 59
consumption of liquid fuels, 37
costs, 55-60, 105-107
fossil fuel, 51, 58, 104-107
fuel costs, 57, 58-59
integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
intermittent, 57, 58-59
natural gas, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106
NGCC plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128
new plants, 42, 45, 105
oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104
petroleum, 51
portfolio approach, 4-5, 51, 107-108
renewable sources, 13, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59
retail price of electricity, 47-48, 49, 56, 100
siting of facilities, 57, 60
supply from new technologies or technology mixes, 49, 51-60
water use, 60
wholesale power markets, 56-57, 59
Electricity sector
barriers to improvement, 77
demand side technologies, 45, 60
energy efficiency improvements, 40-41
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 24, 68-69, 70, 73
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Electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) systems
accommodating all generation and storage options, 51, 60, 61
advanced equipment and components, 116
barriers to deployment, 78, 117-118
benefits of modernization, 3, 60-61, 118
cascading failures and blackouts, 60
communications system, 116-117
costs of modernization, 58-59, 61
custom power, 116
customer motivation and involvement, 61
decision-support tools, 117
distribution system, 61
economic benefits, 115
electrified vehicle fleet and, 4
environmental benefits, 116
FACTS technology, 116
findings, 3, 60-61
grid visualization, 117
integrating intermittent/renewable resources integrated in, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98-99, 116, 118
investment barriers, 78
market accommodations, 61
problems, 13, 78
regional ownership and regulation, 78
regulatory and legislative barriers, 78
reliability measures, 61
security, 115
sensing and measurements, 116-117
smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118
storage, 6, 51, 61, 78
technologies, 116-117
transmission system, 60, 61
Electronics. See Appliances and electronics
Endangered Species Act, 40
Energy conservation, xiii, 33, 40 n.3, 61
Energy consumption.
See also Electricity consumption;
specific fuels
buildings sector, 2, 14, 83
business-as-usual reference case, 2, 21, 36-37
comparison of sectors, 17, 22, 36-37
current, 2, 17
energy efficiency technologies and, 2, 11-12
by fuel source, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36-37
historical, 19, 21
industry, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44
international comparison, 11-12, 20
per capita, 19, 20
per dollar of GDP, 19, 20
projected, 2, 19, 21, 36-37
total, 22
Energy costs. See Costs
Energy demand.
See also Electricity demand
economic conditions and, 15, 25
impacts of technology development, 32
potential energy sources relative to, 13
projected, 41, 42
Energy-efficient technologies.
See also Appliances;
Buildings;
Industrial;
Light-duty vehicles;
Lighting;
Transportation
advanced, 83-84
availability, 82
barriers to deployment, 6, 76-77, 78, 87-88
baseline/reference cases, 83
capital investment needs, 83
combined heat and power production, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88
conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83
consumer behavior, 49, 50, 79
cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49
cost-effectiveness, 2, 40-41, 49, 82
and demand for electricity, 32, 44-45
drivers of, 84, 88
findings, 1-2, 3, 4, 40-49, 50
informational and education needs, 87-88
infrastructure considerations, 86, 88
integrated approaches, 84, 85
natural gas savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49
panel report, 31, 81
potential savings in energy, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88
price of energy and, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88
public policies and programs, 82, 86, 88
R&D, 6, 74, 85
rates of return, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83
regulations and standards, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88
societal benefits, 40
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, 27, 45, 46, 62, 131
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Energy Information Administration (EIA)
business-as-usual reference case, 2, 11, 12, 36, 45, 57, 82
energy consumption projections, 2, 40, 45
Energy intensity
defined, 11
trends, 11
Energy Policy Act of 2005, 27, 109 n.14, 113
Energy savings
energy efficiency improvements, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88
methods and assumptions, 130-131
public policies and, 88
Energy security, 1, 10, 12-13, 25-26, 55, 89, 92, 103
Energy sources.
See also Primary;
Useful
access issues, 12
flows of energy, 12
stored, 12
ENERGY STAR® program, 88
Energy storage.
See also Battery technologies
dispatchable, for T&D systems, 61, 78
fuel cells, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94
LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85
Energy supply.
See also individual energy sources
barriers to deployment of technologies, 77
business-as-usual reference case, 36-37
calculations, 126-129
by fuel source, 36-37
by production sector, 36-37
projected, 36-37
Energy-supply and end-use technologies
build time, 123, 128-129
competitiveness, 33
defined, 9 n.1
integrated assessment, 32
role in transforming energy system, 27-30, 32
Energy system. See U.S. energy system
Environmental impacts.
See also Carbon dioxide;
Greenhouse gas emissions
aesthetics, 102
challenges in transforming energy systems, 25-26, 88
land-use impacts, 101-102
nitrogen oxide emissions, xi, 11 n.3, 19
noise pollution, 102
policies and legislation, 26, 88
sulfur oxides, xi
water supply/pollution, 101
Ethanol.
See also Cellulosic ethanol;
Corn ethanol
greenhouse gas emissions, 72
supply, 37
European Union, 11, 20.
See also individual countries
Exports of energy, trends, 20.
See individual sources
F
Federal Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit, 95, 99, 101
Feedstocks. See Biomass;
Coal
Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93
Ford administration, 26
Fossil fuels.
See also Coal;
Natural gas;
Oil;
Petroleum
carbon capture and storage, 2
CO2 emissions, 11, 16, 25
consumption, 14
dependence on, 14-15, 25
economic importance, 14
electric power generation, 3, 16, 104-107
environmental and safety issues, 11, 16, 25-26, 108-109
findings, 2
prices, 2, 14, 28
resources and reserves, 13
supply and demand, 25
for transportation, 108
Freight transportation
air, 86
potential energy efficiency improvements, 45
rail, 86
truck transport, 85-86
Fuel-cell technologies, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 86, 94
Fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels
G
Gasification technologies
co-fed coal and biomass, 3-4, 91
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integrated gasification combined cycle plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128
Gasoline.
See also Light-duty vehicles;
Oil;
Petroleum
costs with and without carbon price, 93
Genetics, 74
Genomics, 74
Geoengineering, 29, 75
Geologic storage of CO2.
See also Carbon capture and storage
coal-bed, 70, 107
oil and gas reservoirs, 70, 91, 107
regulation, 92
saline aquifers, 70, 107
Geothermal power
consumption, by sector, 17
costs, 57, 58
electricity generating capacity, 6, 13, 17, 57, 58, 97
enhanced geothermal systems, 6, 97
hydrothermal, 97, 128
R&D opportunities, 6, 75, 97
technology description, 97
Greenhouse gas emissions.
See also Carbon dioxide;
Methane;
specific sectors, technologies, and energy sources
defined, 11 n.3
and global warming, xi, 11 n.3, 29, 40
management, 29;
see also Carbon capture
portfolio approach to reducing, 68-73
timeframe for reducing, 68, 71, 73
transportation sector, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84
U.S. trends, 19
H
Heating and cooling systems
biomass, 32
cogeneration, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88
Home electronics. See Appliances and electronics
Homes. See Residential
Hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4
Hydrogen fuel
LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94
petroleum replacement potential, 94
Hydropower
consumption, 13, 17, 18
costs, 57, 97, 100
electricity generating capacity, 13, 18, 51, 52, 95, 98, 128
environmental impacts, 97
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
marine and hydrokinetic, 97, 128
potential, 95, 98
technology, 97
I
Imports of energy, trends, 20.
See also individual sources
Independent power producers, 95, 128
India, 20
Industrial sector
advanced materials, 87
barriers to improving, 88
biomass use, 17
cement, 44, 86, 87
chemical manufacturing, 86
coal use, 14, 17, 24
combined heat and power, 44, 86, 87
consumption of energy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44
crosscutting technologies, 87
fabrication processes and materials, 87
iron and steel, 43-44, 86, 87
natural gas use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37
on-demand manufacturing, 86
petroleum refining, 86, 87
petroleum use, 17, 24
policy and regulatory issues, 38-39 n.1
potential for energy savings, 2, 43-44, 82, 86-87
pulp and paper, 43-44, 86, 87
reference case, 44, 86
remanufacturing of used products, 87
return on investments, 82
sensors and control systems, 87
separation processes, 87
thermochemical conversion, 74
Informational and education needs
energy efficiency, 87-88
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Infrastructure issues, 31.
See also Electricity transmission
energy-efficient technologies, 86, 88
International cooperation, 29
Investment in clean energy
asset renewal or replacement, 13, 78
barriers to deployment of technologies, 77, 78
capital constraints, 95
consumer resistance to, 49, 50, 79
cost-effectiveness, 40-41, 77
energy efficiency technologies, 82, 83
incentives for, 78
nuclear plants, 70-71
payback period, 82
price of fuel and, xii, 82
private-sector, 27, 77, 78
public sector, 78
renewable resources, 95
research, development, and demonstrations, 39, 74-76
returns on, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83
risk perceptions, 71
tax credits, 38 n.1
T&D systems, 78
trends, 27
Iron and steel industry, 43-44, 86, 87
J
Japan
energy consumption, 11, 20
L
Legislation.
See also individual statutes
and development of new energy supplies, 40
energy, 27
environmental, 26-27, 40
piecemeal approach, 26
Light-duty vehicles.
See also Alternative liquid fuels
battery-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85
battery technology, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85
body designs, 84, 85
CAFE standards, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85
demand for electricity, 44-45
deployment scenarios, 85
diesel compression-ignition engines, 45, 84
electrification, 4, 44, 62, 67, 73
engine improvements, 84
environmental impacts of new technologies, 44, 73
EPA limit on truck weight, 46
fuel efficiency improvements, 3, 4, 40, 41, 44-46, 67, 73
gasoline hybrid-electric, 45, 85, 86
gasoline spark-ignition engines, 45, 84
greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 16, 73, 85
hydrogen fuel-cell, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94
nonpropulsion system improvements, 84, 85
petroleum consumption, 67, 89
plug-in hybrid-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85
potential for energy efficiency improvements, 44-46, 62, 84
power and size offsets, 40, 45, 46, 84, 85
price of gasoline, 84
production capability, 88
R&D, 6, 74, 85
tires, 84
transmission improvements, 84, 85
travel reductions, 46
Lighting
compact fluorescent lamps, 50
daylight, 84
energy savings, 47, 83
regulations and standards, 41
solid-state (light-emitting diodes), 83
Lime kilns, 87
Liquefied natural gas, 15
Liquid transportation fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels;
Biofuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels;
Diesel;
Gasoline;
Petroleum
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M
Malaysia, 20
Manhattan Project, 29
Methane
coal-bed, 103
emissions, 11, 19
hydrates, 75, 94
Methanol, 94
Methanol-to-gasoline technology, 67, 72
Molecular biology, 74
Municipal solid waste, 89, 97
N
National Environmental Policy Act, 26
National Science Foundation, 76
Natural gas.
See also Liquefied natural gas;
Methane
access issue, 12, 71, 103
age of power plants, 23
buildings sector, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 43, 48-49
carbon capture and storage, 58, 69, 70, 71
CO2 emissions, 3, 16, 24, 68, 69, 70, 71, 102
combined cycle (NGCC) plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128
competitiveness, 105-106
compressed, 94
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 37
costs, 48-49
economic importance, 15
electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106
energy efficiency savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49
feedstock for fuel, 94
findings, 3
industrial use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37
import dependence (potential), 3, 15, 16, 25, 37, 71, 103
new plants, 70
pipelines, 109
potential, 16
prices, 3, 15, 25, 48, 49, 57-58, 59, 71, 103
production (domestic), 15, 16, 37
reserves and resources, 2, 3, 15, 37, 102-103
retrofitted plants with CCS, 70, 71
shales, 15, 103, 105-106
single-cycle plants, 23
supply and demand, 103, 106
tight gas sands, 15, 103
transportation fuel, 37
New Source Performance Standards, 78
Nitrogen oxide emissions, 11 n.3, 19
Nixon administration, 26
Norway, 107
Nuclear energy
aging/retirement of plants, 13, 23, 53-54, 112
barriers to deployment, 113-114
capacity factor, 54
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22
costs, 57, 58, 113
demonstration needs and constraints, 55
downtime decreases, 110
economic barriers, 70-71, 113
electricity costs, 2
environmental impacts, 114-115
federal incentives, 39 n.2, 55, 58, 59
findings, 2, 3, 39, 70-71
greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 69, 70-71
improvements to existing plants, 52-53, 110
new plants, 3, 51, 53
operating license extensions, 53-55, 110, 112
potential for deployment, 3, 13, 70-71, 112-113
power uprates, 52-53, 110
proliferation risk, 111
public concerns, 113-114
refueling outages, 110
regulatory and legislative issues, 113
safety and security, 115
supply of electricity, 3, 14, 49, 51, 52-55, 114
technologies, 110-112;
see also Nuclear reactors
Nuclear fuel cycle.
See also Uranium
alternative, 111, 113
breeding, 111
closed, 111
disposal of spent fuel, 60
mining and milling impacts, 60
separations technologies, 111
Nuclear fusion, 29
Nuclear reactors
alternative designs, 111
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costs, 70-71
demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 68, 70-71
evolutionary designs, 2, 5, 6, 39, 49, 68, 70-71, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124
fast, 111
R&D opportunities, 6
Nuclear waste management, 60
high-level wastes, 115
interim storage, 115
Yucca Mountain high-level-waste storage, 115
O
Obama administration, 27, 41 n.4, 45 n.7, 62, 85 n.7
Oil.
See also Gasoline;
Petroleum
access issue, 12
CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 91
demand, 15
liquid fuel consumption, 62-65
political importance, 14-15
prices, xii, 15, 67
production (domestic), 14 n.8
reserves and resources, 13, 102
shales, 75, 102, 108, 109
P
Passenger transportation
air, 86 n.8
vehicular, see Light-duty vehicles
Petroleum.
See also Fossil fuels;
Oil
buildings sector, 17, 24
CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 72
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 62, 89, 102
demand, 15
dependence, xi, 25, 63, 67, 89
economic importance, 14
electricity generation, 36
energy efficiency improvements and, 67
import dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 62, 84, 89, 93
industrial sector, 17, 24
prices, 25
production rates (domestic), 3, 14, 62-63, 102
refining, 86, 87
replacement or reduction, 3, 14, 62-67, 73
transportation fuel, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108
Plutonium, 111
Policies and programs.
See also Legislation;
Regulations and standards;
individual statutes
barriers to adoption of technologies, 6, 76-77, 78
carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1
costs of, 45 n.8
energy efficiency, 82, 86, 88
energy savings estimates, 88
ENERGY STAR® program, 88
incentives and grants, 6, 38 n.1
RD&D, 88
state/utility, 88
tax credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101
Population
growth, 11-12, 25, 83
Potential energy sources
defined, 13
Power grid. See Electricity transmission and distribution systems
Price of energy
and energy-efficient technology adoption, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88
Primary energy sources, 12, 21, 22, 33
Princeton Environmental Institute, 124, 125
Production of energy, trends, 20.
See also individual sources
Public engagement, 29-30
Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, 88
Pulp and paper industry, 43-44, 86, 87
PUREX, 111
R
Reagan administration, 26
Regulations and standards.
See also Legislation;
individual statutes
appliance efficiency standards, 88
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building energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88
CAFE, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85
energy efficiency, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88
environmental, 26-27, 78, 88
performance-oriented, 6, 78
renewables portfolio standards, 28, 39 n.2, 51, 95
Remanufacturing of used products for resale, 87
Renewable energy.
See also Biopower;
Geothermal;
Hydropower;
Solar;
Wind
20% electricity generation, 13, 95, 98-99
competitiveness, 97-98
consumption of energy from, 21, 22
co-siting of different technologies, 98
costs, 33, 51, 99-100
deployment barriers, 12, 97-98, 101
development potential, 97-99
electricity generation capacity, 2, 31, 51, 94-96
environmental impacts, 101-102
findings, 2
greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 101
human and materials resource constraints, 101
integration in T&D systems, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98, 99, 101, 116, 118
land-use impacts, 101-102
non-electricity (distributed), 99-100
policy setting, 101
R&D, 98
resource base, 95-96
supply of electricity, 13, 51, 52
technology descriptions, 96-97
Research, development, and demonstrations (RD&D)
advanced materials, 76
alternative liquid fuels, 74-75
basic research, 75-76
battery technologies, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85
biofuels, 74-75, 90
biosciences, 74
CCS demonstrations, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109
cellulosic ethanol demonstrations, 6, 64, 74, 90
climate-related, 75
CO2 recycling, 75
coal technologies, 6, 64, 74
energy efficiency, 6, 74, 85
evolutionary nuclear reactor demonstrations, 5, 6, 68, 70-71, 74
federal support, 76
geoengineering, 75
geothermal power, 75
investments in, 39, 74, 75-76
LDV technologies, 6, 74, 75
national effort, 28
natural gas from hydrates, 75
nuclear fuel cycle, 75
oil shale extraction technologies, 75
opportunities for, 6, 30, 73-76, 79, 85
portfolio approach, 5-6, 73
radioactive waste management, 75
solar photovoltaics, 75, 76
scale of demonstrations, 28
social science research, 75
urgency of, 5, 30, 71
wind energy, 75
Reserves.
See also individual energy sources
defined, 13
Residential buildings.
See also Appliances;
Buildings;
Lighting
consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37
energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49
low-energy and zero-net-energy new homes, 84
rental units, 50, 87
solar power at point of use, 59, 83
Resources, defined, 13.
See also individual energy sources
S
Secondary energy source. See Electricity generation
Sensor development, 87
Separation processes and technologies
industry energy efficiency measures, 87, 111
PUREX, 111
Silicon, 96
Smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118
Solar power, general
consumption, by sector, 17
costs, 57, 58, 96
growth, 95
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resource base, 96
Solar power, photovoltaic (PV)
competitiveness, 99-100
costs, 58, 99-100, 101
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
integration in power grid, 3
point-of-use (residential) installations, 59, 96
potential of, 13
R&D opportunities, 6, 59
silicon flat-plate arrays, 96
technology description, 96-97
thin-film technologies, 96-97
Solar power, thermal nonelectric.
See also Concentrating solar power
South Korea, 20
Supply of energy. See Energy supply
T
Taxes
barriers to technology deployment, 88
carbon, 38 n.1
credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101
Technology. See Critical technologies;
Energy-supply and end-use technologies;
Research, development, and demonstrations;
specific technologies
Thailand, 20
Thermochemical conversion
biomass-to-liquid fuel, 91
carbon capture and storage, 74, 91-92
coal-to-liquid fuel, 91, 92
co-fed biomass and coal, 3-4, 91-92
cost analysis, 91
Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93
greenhouse gas emissions, 91-92
methanol-to-gasoline process, 67, 72, 93
RD&D, 74
supply of fuel from, 92
Transportation sector.
See also Air transportation;
Alternative transportation fuels;
Freight transportation;
Passenger transportation
energy efficiency, 2, 3, 4, 38-39 n.1, 40, 41, 43, 44-46, 62, 82, 84-86, 88
findings, 3, 4, 44-45
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 108
infrastructure considerations, 86
intelligent systems, 86
liquid fuel consumption, 36-37, 62-65
petroleum dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108
portfolio approach, 4, 5, 68, 71
potential for energy savings, 44-46, 62, 82, 84
public policies, 86
regulations, 38-39 n.1
system-level improvements, 86
U
Uranium
mining and milling, 60
resources and reserves, 13, 115
U.S. Department of Energy
20% wind electricity generation scenario, 13, 95, 98-99
Office of Science, 76
U.S. energy system.
See also individual resources
aging of, 13
critical characteristics, 11-13
current profile, 11-25
regional considerations, 31-32
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency vehicle size and weight limits, 46
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 113, 114 n.18
Useful energy sources, defined, 12
W
Windows, 84
Wind power
20% penetration scenarios, 13, 95, 98-99, 100
capacity, 98-99
consumption, by sector, 17
costs, 57, 58, 96, 99, 100, 101, 121, 126
deployment challenges, 60, 99, 101
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electricity generation capacity, 17, 27, 36, 51, 57, 95, 128
environmental impacts, 101
financing, 95
and greenhouse gas emissions, 69
integration in power grid, 3, 34, 57, 60, 81, 96, 99, 100, 101
manufacturing, materials, and labor requirements, 98
offshore, 36, 58, 100, 126
onshore, 36, 57, 58, 99, 100, 126
potential, 96, 99
public policies, 95, 99, 101
resource base, 96, 128
siting, 60, 101
storage and load management, 75, 99
technology description, 96
turbines, 95, 96, 100
