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Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States (2010)

Chapter: Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
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Appendix D
Salt Substitutes and Enhancers

TABLE D-1 Selected Examples of Proposed Salt Substitutes

Substitute

Applications

Comments

Potassium chloride (KCl)

Many foods, including cheeses,a breads,b and meats;c may be mixed with NaCl in up to a 50:50 ratioc

Bitter to many people;c many patents to reduce KCl bitterness exist;d because potassium intake of the U.S. population is low, increased intake of potassium may benefit somee but could harm certain subpopulations (e.g., those with certain medical conditions or taking certain medications)f

Lithium chloride (LiCl)

None: toxic although almost perfectly salty

 

Calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)

Few foods

Somewhat salty but with many off-tastes;g bitter tastes of MgSO4 are usually perceived only at high levels;h CaCl2 can cause irritations on the tongueh

Sea salt

Many foods, also used in salt shakers

Usually contains substantial amounts of sodium chloride; benefits of use in reducing sodium consumption are unclear

Salts with altered crystal structure

Some foods

Porous and star-shaped structures, created by manipulating the salt drying process, allow greater salty taste with smaller amounts of salt;i particularly useful in applications where salt is used on the surface of food productsj

aGuinee and O’Kennedy, 2007.

bCauvain, 2007.

cDesmond, 2007

dPorzio, 2007.

eAnthony, 2007.

fDietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2005.

gMurphy et al., 1981.

hKilcast and den Ridder, 2007.

iDesmond, 2006.

jPszczola, 2007.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×

TABLE D-2 Selected Examples of Proposed Salt Enhancers

Ingredient

Applications

Comments

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and other glutamates

Many foods; can replace some salta

No pleasant taste in itself, but enhances salty tastes; imparts the taste of umami; MSG contains sodium; other glutamate salts such as monopotassium glutamate or calcium diglutamate may further reduce sodium; synergizes with 5′-ribonucleotides;b may replace bitter blockingc and oral thickeningd characteristics; often contained in hydrolyzed vegetable protein and yeast extractsa

Yeast extracts and hydrolyzed vegetable protein

Some foods

Often contains MSG, but is seen as a “natural” alternative to MSG use; meaty and brothy tastes limit potential usesd,e

Nucleotides including inosine-5′-monophosphate (IMP) and guanosine-5′-monophosphate

Some foods

Imparts the taste of umami; found to act synergistically with glutamates to enhance salty tastes in some foodsd,f

Amino acids, especially arginine and related compounds

Not known

L-Arginine is reported to enhance the saltiness of foods with low to moderate levels of salt; practical uses are not clearg

Dairy concentrates

Many foods

Reported to allow moderate sodium reductions in a variety of productse,h

Lactates (potassium lactate, calcium lactate, and sodium lactate)

Few foods

May enhance the saltiness of NaCl, but not widely used; calcium lactate can impart a sour tasteb

Herbs and spices

Many foods

Herbs and spices provide other flavoring characteristics and may, for some people, help alleviate blandness following salt removale,i,j

Compounds that reduce bitterness including adenosine-5′-monophosphate, DHB (2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid), lactose, sodium gluconate, and mixtures for use in combination with potassium chloride

Many foods

Designed to mask bitterness of potassium chloride or reduce bitterness from other food components that are usually masked by salt; allow partial reduction of total sodium contentb,e,k,l

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×

Ingredient

Applications

Comments

Mixtures of NaCl substitutes and enhancers

Many foods

Proprietary mixtures are produced by many companies; mixtures consist of a number of ingredients such as non-sodium salts, yeast extracts, potassium chloride, sodium, and sodium gluconatee,m,n,o

aYamaguchi, 1987.

bKilcast and den Ridder, 2007.

cKeast et al., 2004.

dBrandsma, 2006.

ePszczola, 2007.

fAjinomoto Food Ingredients LLC, 2008.

gBreslin and Beauchamp, 1995.

hArmor Proteines, 2007.

iKilcast, 2007.

jAinsworth and Plunkett, 2007.

kNdabikunze and Lahtinen, 1989.

lDesmond, 2007.

mDSM Food Specialties, 2004.

nPszczola, 2006.

oJungbunzlauer, 2007.

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, P., and A. Plunkett. 2007. Reducing salt in snack products. In Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies, edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead. Pp. 296-315.

Ajinomoto Food Ingredients LLC. 2008. Ajinomoto monoammonium glutamate (MAG) and monopotassium glutamate (MPG). http://www.ajiusafood.com/5MAG/main.asp (accessed 2008).

Anthony, M. 2007. Season with (only) a grain of salt. http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2007/204.html (accessed September 2008).

Armor Proteines. 2007. Lactosalt Optitaste. http://www.armor-proteines.com/ENG/lactosalt_UK.pdf (accessed 2008).

Brandsma, I. 2006. Reducing sodium: A European perspective. Food Technology 60(3): 24-29.

Breslin, P. A. S., and G. K. Beauchamp. 1995. Suppression of bitterness by sodium: Variation among bitter taste stimuli. Chemical Senses 20(6):609-623.

Cauvain, S. P. 2007. Reduced salt in bread and other baked products. In Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies, edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead. Pp. 283-295.

Desmond, E. 2006. Reducing salt: A challenge for the meat industry. Meat Science 74(1): 188-196.

Desmond, E. 2007. Reducing salt in meat and poultry products. In Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies, edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead. Pp. 233-255.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. 2005. Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. A Report to the Secretary of Health and Human Services and the Secretary of Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

DSM Food Specialties. 2004. Maxarite—product properties. http://www.dsm.com/le/en_US/maxarite/html/properties.htm (accessed December 12, 2008).

Guinee, T. P., and B. T. O’Kennedy. 2007. Reducing salt in cheese and dairy spreads. In Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies, edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead. Pp. 316-357.

Jungbunzlauer AG. 2007. Sub4salt: Jungbunzlauer’s way to reduce sodium. Switzerland: Jungbunzlauer AG.

Keast, R. S. J., T. M. Canty, and P. A. S. Breslin. 2004. The influence of sodium salts on binary mixtures of bitter-tasting compounds. Chemical Senses 29(5):431-439.

Kilcast, D. 2007. Cutting sodium. Prepared Foods, January:1-5.

Kilcast, D., and C. den Ridder. 2007. Sensory issues in reducing salt in food products. In Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies, edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead. Pp. 201-220.

Murphy, C., A. V. Cardello, and J. G. Brand. 1981. Tastes of fifteen halide salts following water and NaCl: Anion and cation effects. Physiology and Behavior 26(6):1083-1095.

Ndabikunze, B. K., and S. Lahtinen. 1989. Substitution of sodium chloride by Morton lite salt or mineral salt in mayonnaise. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 24(4):367-371.

Porzio, M. 2007. Flavor delivery and product development. Food Technology, January: 22-29.

Pszczola, D. 2006. Exploring new ‘tastes’ in textures. Food Technology, January: 44-55.

Pszczola, D. 2007. Savoring the possibilities. Food Technology 61(4):55-66.

Yamaguchi, S. 1987. Fundamental properties of umami in human taste sensation. In Umami: A basic taste, edited by Y. Kawamura and M. R. Kare. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×
Page 405
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×
Page 406
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×
Page 407
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Salt Substitutes and Enhancers." Institute of Medicine. 2010. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12818.
×
Page 408
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Reducing the intake of sodium is an important public health goal for Americans. Since the 1970s, an array of public health interventions and national dietary guidelines has sought to reduce sodium intake. However, the U.S. population still consumes more sodium than is recommended, placing individuals at risk for diseases related to elevated blood pressure.

Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States evaluates and makes recommendations about strategies that could be implemented to reduce dietary sodium intake to levels recommended by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The book reviews past and ongoing efforts to reduce the sodium content of the food supply and to motivate consumers to change behavior. Based on past lessons learned, the book makes recommendations for future initiatives. It is an excellent resource for federal and state public health officials, the processed food and food service industries, health care professionals, consumer advocacy groups, and academic researchers.

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