Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 51
3
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries
and the United States
T his chapter describes safety practices in other countries that have been credited with
producing substantial and rapid reductions in highway deaths. Also described are examples
of U.S. efforts at the national level to develop the capabilities that appear to be important in other
nations’ programs. The first section below summarizes several past international surveys of
safety programs by the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and others that attempted to
define the common features of successful programs. The reviews have been influential in
drawing attention in the United States to the methods and the successes in other countries. The
second describes the features of selected major initiatives in France, Australia, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom to illustrate the general features that the past reviews identified. The third
describes several recent national-level initiatives to strengthen and reform U.S. traffic safety
programs, some of which were influenced by awareness of practices in other countries. These
include USDOT-sponsored multistate demonstrations of anti–drunk driving and speed control
campaigns and new approaches to safety planning in the states promoted by USDOT and by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), as reviewed in
reports of USDOT and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). These
sources provide a basis for comparison of U.S. state and federal safety programs with those of
other countries and indicate the challenges of applying methods used in other countries in the
U.S. context.
COMMON ELEMENTS OF BENCHMARK NATIONS’ SAFETY PROGRAMS
Chapter 1 cited reports of several U.S. expert groups, sponsored by USDOT and AASHTO, that
have surveyed traffic safety practices in other countries with the goal of identifying the essential
components of successful programs. At least 10 such groups in the past decade have studied
aspects of safety programs or of general management practices (e.g., performance measurement)
that are essential elements of safety programs (FHWA 2009c). Boxes 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3 present
lists of components as compiled in these reports. These U.S. syntheses highlight largely the
same program elements as the comparison of international practices by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Working Group on Achieving Ambitious
Road Safety Targets (Box 3-4).
A detailed specification of the elements of road safety management is provided in the
World Bank’s Country Guidelines for the Conduct of Road Safety Management Capacity
Reviews and the Specification of Lead Agency Reforms, Investment Strategies and Safe System
Projects (Bliss and Breen 2009). The guidelines define a process for countries receiving World
Bank assistance to follow in creating a program that reduces traffic casualties. They are based
on the recommendations of the United Nations’ World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention
(Peden et al. 2004) and on in-depth analyses of safety program organization in seven countries
(summarized in the document). The guidelines strongly emphasize the essential step of
51
OCR for page 52
52 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
identifying a lead agency in government and endowing it with the necessary powers, resources,
and responsibility. The lead agency is to “guide the national road safety effort, with the power to
make decisions, manage resources and coordinate the efforts of all participating sectors of
government” (Bliss and Breen 2009, 16).
Box 3-1
Lessons from a Decade of Safety Scanning Tours
A summary by Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) safety professionals of the
experience of more than a dozen FHWA–AASHTO safety scanning tours conducted over the
past decade highlighted five lessons that U.S. states can apply to improve highway safety
(Baxter et al. 2005):
1. A top-down commitment by the political leadership is essential for reducing fatalities.
Leadership is required to provide direction, accountability, and resources.
2. A “safe systems” approach—that is, identifying the causal factors of crashes in the
jurisdiction so that specific strategies can be implemented in response—is a valuable method
of planning the program of countermeasures to be applied. This approach will often lead to
multidisciplinary countermeasure strategies (e.g., combining actions to change driver
behavior with road design improvements).
3. A collaborative process of planning and implementation, reaching out to all relevant
agencies and to interested nongovernmental groups, contributes to success. In the United
States, this lesson implies that collaboration between the states and local governments,
allowing local input to planning and providing local governments with training and
assistance, will be vital.
4. Successful national safety strategies are based on a “business approach”; that is,
management entails defining objectives, quantifying results, and showing cost-effectiveness.
5. Innovative concepts developed abroad would have safety payoffs if applied in the
United States. Examples include the European and Australian Road Assessment Programs
and road designs on the principle of the “self-organizing roadway” that are being applied in
some European countries—features such as intersection roundabouts that naturally induce
drivers to operate their vehicles in a safer manner.
OCR for page 53
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 53
Box 3-2
Steps to Better Safety Management Through Performance Measurement
A 2004 FHWA–AASHTO scanning tour of Australia, Canada, Japan, and New
Zealand observed the use of performance measures in transportation planning and decision
making. The study panel concluded that “transportation agencies in the countries visited use
performance measures for setting priorities and making investment and management
decisions to a greater extent than is typical in the United States” and that “the most
impressive application of performance management [was] in road safety, where it was used
to identify strategies to reduce fatalities” (MacDonald et al. 2004, ii). The panel attributed
these countries’ success in reducing road fatalities primarily to systematic management
practices founded on goal setting, quantitative performance evaluation, and accountability for
results (MacDonald et al. 2004, 60).
The panel identified eight steps that were common to the approaches to safety
management in the countries visited (MacDonald et al. 2004, 60–67):
1. Understand the problem. Successful safety programs rely on systematic data
collection, analysis, and research to understand the most important crash causes and risk
factors on the country’s roads.
2. Establish institutional leadership, responsibility, and accountability. Success was
associated with direct engagement of the most senior level of government administration and
close coordination among the responsible agencies, including transportation agencies, police,
and courts.
3. Define desired outcomes. Successful programs have established quantitative targets
for total casualties and for specific categories of risks (e.g., high crash frequency locations,
young drivers, alcohol-related crashes).
4. Identify performance indicators. Indicators are measures of the desired ultimate
outcomes (reduced fatalities, injuries, and crashes) and measures of organizational outputs
that are expected to lead to these outcomes (e.g., numbers of enforcement actions taken,
frequency of violations of speed limits and other road regulations).
5. Compare performance with experiences of other jurisdictions. Benchmarking is an
aid in setting goals and revealing potential problems.
6. Implement a systematic safety data collection and analysis process. Information
systems in successful countries were geared toward providing continual and timely
monitoring of performance indicators and evaluating the effectiveness of implemented
actions.
7. Develop a safety plan and integrate it into agency decision making. Plans in the
countries studied define the safety problem, performance targets, and organizational
responsibilities and evaluate a range of strategy options for reaching targets. The plans are
developed with public input.
8. Monitor effectiveness of implemented actions. Transportation officials in the
countries visited had good information on the injury reduction achieved by each implemented
strategy.
OCR for page 54
54 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
Box 3-3
Critical Success Factors
The 2006 FHWA publication Halving Roadway Fatalities was inspired by FHWA’s
2004 Pacific scanning tour on performance measurement and written by an Australian expert
on that country’s safety methods. It identifies the following critical success factors and
enabling circumstances in the highway safety program of the Australian state of Victoria
(Johnston 2006, 17):
1. A sound and realistic plan: The plan must identify and focus on the major problems,
propose interventions known to be effective, set objective targets, and provide for monitoring
of progress and public accountability.
2. Political and bureaucratic leadership: Committed political leadership must be
supported by leadership from each agency responsible for implementing the plan.
3. Integrated implementation: Integrated, coordinated implementation by the various
agencies with responsibilities under the plan is an essential ingredient of the Victorian
success story.
Beyond these critical factors, the following enabling circumstances in Victoria
contributed to the success of the safety program:
• A history of success with interventions based on legislation and enforcement helped
create a political willingness to act.
• Relationships have long existed between the traffic safety research community and
policy makers, which facilitated planning and created a climate in which scientific
evaluations of interventions are routine.
• Extensive public education traffic safety programs have been instrumental in
sustaining community concern for road safety and support for effective interventions.
• The media historically have been supportive of effective interventions, which has
facilitated political willingness to act.
OCR for page 55
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 55
Box 3-4
Achieving Ambitious Road Safety Targets
The OECD Working Group on Achieving Ambitious Road Safety Targets compiled
reports in uniform format from 39 member states on traffic safety performance and trends,
road safety problems, and the content of safety program (OECD and International Transport
Forum n.d.). This information supported a comparative analysis of common institutional
features of successful safety programs, summarized in the report as follows (OECD and
International Transport Forum 2008d, 16–17):
Improving Key Institutional Management Functions
Because road safety performance is determined by institutional capacity to implement
efficient and effective interventions, targets will be most readily met if a robust management
system can be established. This system should have a clear focus on producing agreed
results. Results are dependent on interventions which are in turn dependent on institutional
management functions. . . . Much of the day to day discussion concerning road safety centres
only on interventions. Addressing all parts of the management pyramid [results,
interventions, and institutional management functions] brings in such important and often
neglected issues as institutional ownership and functional capacities for road safety policies,
a safety performance framework for delivery of interventions and accountability for results.
The following seven institutional management functions are critical determinants of a
country’s capacity to achieve results:
• Results focus—a strategic focus that links the delivery of interventions with
subsequent intermediate and final outcomes. This requires government to designate a lead
agency to work with other agencies to:
— Develop management capacity to understand a country’s road safety issues.
— Provide a comprehensive strategy with intermediate and outcome targets.
— Deliver interventions and target achievements.
— Review performance.
• Coordination of the key agencies to develop and deliver road safety policy and
strategy.
• Effective legislation to enable desired results to be delivered.
• Adequate funding and well targeted resource allocation for interventions and related
institutional management functions.
• Promotion of road safety within government and the broader community.
• Robust and systematic monitoring and evaluation to measure progress.
• Proactive research and development and knowledge transfer programmes which
actively influence improvement in interventions, institutional management functions and
performance monitoring.
Above all, the commitment to a results focused approach to road safety management
has a critical role in determining the achievement of a country’s road safety ambition and
related targets.
OCR for page 56
56 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
The generalization that emerges from the past analyses is that successful programs must
function effectively at three levels:
• Management and planning: Transportation, public safety, and public health
administrators systematically measure progress toward quantitative objectives, direct resources
to the most cost-effective uses, coordinate programs across agencies, and communicate with the
public and with elected officials to maintain their support. Management commitment (in terms
of attention and resources) is sustained and consistent.
• Technical implementation of specific countermeasures: A range of measures is
employed for regulating driver behavior (for example, enforcement techniques to control speed
and drunk driving), maintaining effective emergency response, and incorporating hazard
reduction in the design and maintenance of roads. The techniques are generally of proven high
effectiveness and often intensively applied.
• Political support and leadership: Elected officials and their appointees establish
safety as a priority, provide the necessary legal framework and resources, and hold public-sector
managers accountable for results. A degree of public acceptance of the need for rigorous
countermeasures has been gained, and system users expect to be held accountable for compliance
with laws and regulations.
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL SAFETY PROGRAMS
Authorities in several countries have summarized their road safety programs by means of
timelines showing policy actions and coincident changes in fatalities (Figure 3-1). However, as
Figure 2-2 in Chapter 2 shows, declines in fatality rates have been nearly universal; therefore, the
assertion that the policy milestones marked on the graphs caused the fatality declines would be
more convincing if the links between specific policy changes and specific results could be shown
directly. For example, did introduction of more rigorous speed enforcement efforts lead to a
measured reduction in speeds, and did lower speed lead to a reduction in the kinds of crashes
associated with speeding?
The first two subsections below describe two cases, new safety policies in France since
2002 and in Australia since 1990, where these links are relatively well documented: changes in
high-level policy in a national or regional comprehensive safety program led to changes in
strategies, resources, and countermeasures applied, and ultimately to changes in injury
frequency. As the summaries of evaluations below will indicate, even in highly regarded safety
programs, quantitative evaluation of effects of policies is not as systematic or conclusive as
would be ideal; also, the committee obtained little information on program expenditures in the
benchmark countries. Nonetheless, study of cases where these links are clearest will provide the
most useful insights on the changes needed in U.S. practices to produce safety improvement.
The final two subsections describe safety programs in Sweden and the United Kingdom. Road
fatality rates in those two countries are among the lowest in the world over the past several
decades, and both conduct significant national safety strategic planning and monitoring
activities.
OCR for page 57
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 57
3.6
750
Road deaths
3.3
700
First National Road Safety Plan
First S(A)P: targeted enforcement resources
Deaths per 10,000 vehicles
3.0
650
CBT and speed cameras
2.7
600
Deaths
Highway Patrol
Intensive advertising and enforcement
2.4
550
Vehicle
impoundment
2.1
500
Deaths per 10,000 vehicles 1.8
450
1.5
400
400
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
[fatalities]
FIGURE 3-1 Safety policy timelines: New Zealand (top) and France (bottom). [SOURCES:
Fitzgerald 2002 (New Zealand); ONISR 2009c (France).]
OCR for page 58
58 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
France
From 1970 to 2008, vehicle kilometers of travel on roads in France increased 200 percent (from
182 billion to 550 billion annually) and highway fatalities declined by 74 percent (from 16,400 to
4,300) (OECD n.d.; OECD and International Transport Forum 2010); consequently, fatalities per
vehicle kilometer declined by 91 percent. The rate of 0.78 fatalities per 100 million vehicle
kilometers of motor vehicle travel in 2008 was equal to the rate in the United States but remained
higher than that in several high-income countries. France has achieved among the steepest
declines in fatality rate in the past decade of the OECD countries for which data are available,
reducing fatalities per vehicle kilometer by 6.9 percent per year in the 1997–2008 period,
compared with 2.4 percent per year in the United States (see Figure 1-1 in Chapter 1). Total
fatalities fell by 49 percent from 1997 to 2008, including a 21 percent reduction from 2002 to
2003.
Program Evolution and Planning
During the 1990s, laws and enforcement efforts against unsafe driver behavior were
strengthened. In 1992 a point system was introduced that imposed license suspensions for
accumulated infractions. The legal limit for a driver’s blood alcohol content (BAC) was lowered
to 0.7 grams per liter in 1994 and to 0.5 in 1995. Starting in 1994, license points were assessed
for failure to wear seat belts. Speeding penalties were increased and speed enforcement
intensified in the late 1990s. Highway safety had become an increasingly visible political issue
during this period (Documentation Française 2006; OECD and ECMT 2006a, 6).
The earlier efforts were substantially reinforced after the president of France announced
in 2002 that road safety would be one of the priority initiatives of his new term of office.
Political sponsorship at the highest level allowed prompt action on a plan for reducing crashes by
intensified enforcement that government agencies had been developing for a period of years
(Documentation Française 2006; OECD and ECMT 2006a, 3). Political commitment has been
sustained. The Interministerial Committee on Road Safety that directs the program has twice-
yearly meetings chaired by the prime minister. It sets government policy on highway safety with
the participation of the two national police agencies, the transportation agency, the justice
ministry, the health ministry, and the safety statistical agency.
The centerpiece of the initiative is an automated speed limit enforcement system. One
thousand radar and camera apparatuses were in operation by 2005, 1,850 by 2007, and 2,300 by
April 2009. Two thousand additions were planned between 2008 and 2012 (Documentation
Française 2006; CISR 2006, 6; OECD and International Transport Forum 2008a; Carnis 2008;
ONISR 2009a). Sites that had high frequencies of speed-related crashes and that met other
criteria were identified as locations for automated speed enforcement. Most sites are on
undivided roads with two-way traffic (ONISR 2005, 4). Both fixed and movable cameras are
deployed. A national speed enforcement center monitors the enforcement devices via a
dedicated telecommunication network, issues citations, and collects fines.
The other principal measures in the current French initiative are increased penalties for
drunk driving and for failure to use seat belts or motorcycle helmets, introduction of a
probationary 6-month license for new drivers, and a road safety infrastructure improvement
program. The selection of emphasis areas was guided by analyses that showed that speed and
alcohol were contributing factors in large shares of fatal crashes (Raynal 2003; ONISR 2005, 6).
OCR for page 59
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 59
France’s annual traffic safety review highlights interventions aimed at driver behavior.
However, the report acknowledges (ONISR 2008, 22) that among the most effective available
interventions are improvements to infrastructure, citing in particular treatment of roadside
obstacles and separation (e.g., by barriers) of opposing lanes on high-volume two-lane roads. It
does not describe the extent of such improvements in France.
A safety-motivated infrastructure program that is documented is roundabout installation
at road junctions. The number of roundabouts in France increased from 10,000 in 1993 to
30,000 in 2008, and roundabouts continue to be installed at an average rate of 1,000 per year
(Scrase 2008; Guichet 2005). French evaluations indicate that installing a roundabout at an
intersection reduces the rate of injury crashes by at least 50 percent, and studies in the United
States and other countries have reported similar benefits (Fuller 2008). A benefit–cost
evaluation of the French roundabout program has not been conducted (Scrase 2008, 3), but these
intersection improvements and programs to reduce roadside hazards and install lane separation
probably have contributed to the reduction in France’s fatality rate.
Performance Monitoring
The chronology of actions alone does not reveal what role the recent safety initiative has played
in producing the downward trend in road fatalities. The general trend has been established for
decades and the principal measures of the initiative were not in full force until 2004, whereas the
sharpest 1-year reduction in fatalities was from 2002 to 2003. However, data are available that
allow a more detailed examination of program impacts. France has strong capabilities for
evaluating the effects of safety countermeasures by means of its centralized, nationwide program
of monitoring of highway crashes, speeds, and enforcement activities. Data are rapidly
collected, analyzed, and published; for example, monthly reports on traffic injuries and fatalities
and three-times-yearly reports on speed trends by road class and vehicle type are published
shortly after the end of the reporting periods (ONISR 2009b).
Enforcement data document the substantial increase in effort after the start of the 2002
initiative. Speeding citations, which had increased 31 percent from 2000 to 2003, nearly doubled
from 2003 to 2004, the result of the automated enforcement system. The total of license point
penalties assessed increased 44 percent in 2004 compared with 2003, and license suspensions for
accumulated points penalties increased 87 percent. These increases were largely the result of
speed enforcement; the number of alcohol tests administered increased only 5 percent in 2004
(OECD and ECMT 2006a; ONISR 2005; ONISR 2008).
Speed data appear to show the results of stepped-up enforcement. The percentage of
light vehicles in free-flowing traffic exceeding the speed limit by more than 10 km/h from 2000
to 2008 was as follows (ONISR 2006b; ONISR 2009a; ONISR 2010):
Year Percentage More Than 10 Year Percentage More Than 10
km/h over Limit km/h over Limit
2000 36 2005 19
2001 36 2006 15
2002 34 2007 14
2003 27 2008 (8 months) 12
2004 21 2009 10
OCR for page 60
60 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
Measurements for monitoring speed trends are taken independently of measurements for
enforcement and at locations not in proximity to cameras.
The overall level of enforcement effort, growth in enforcement effort over the past
decade, and progress in the degree of compliance with traffic laws have been substantial. For
example, moving violations cited increased by 166 percent, license suspensions by 137 percent,
and alcohol tests by 31 percent from 1998 to 2007. Vehicle kilometers of road travel increased
by 11 percent over the period. The alcohol test rate was 279 tests per thousand drivers in 2007
(Table 3-1). The increasing rate of positive alcohol tests in spite of increased testing frequency
is attributed to better targeting of testing with respect to location and time (ONISR 2008, 166).
Seat belt and motorcycle helmet use rates are among the highest in the world. Belt use by front
seat occupants is 98 percent overall, 99 percent on autoroutes, and 97 percent in urban areas.
Helmet use is 89 to 99 percent depending on the road class (ONISR 2008, 135, 161, 202). These
relatively high rates presumably reflect enforcement effort.
The intensity of enforcement is evidently considerably higher in France than in the
United States, although comparison is difficult because U.S. jurisdictions generally do not
monitor enforcement systematically or comprehensively. France’s capability for collection,
analysis, and publication of nationwide data on intermediate outputs and measures of
enforcement effort is integral to its safety program and is in marked contrast with U.S. practices.
Intermediate output measures of enforcement efforts are measures of behavior change caused by
the enforcement (e.g., changes in speed and in belt use in response to enforcement). An
intermediate output measure for a road infrastructure improvement program would be quantities
of kinds of safety-enhancing features installed (e.g., numbers of roundabouts replacing
intersections).
TABLE 3-1 Enforcement Level of Effort in France, 1998 and 2007
Number Percent Number per
(thousands) Change, 1,000 Drivers,
1998–2007 2007
1998 2007
Total moving violations cited 4,884 12,972 +166 322
Speed limit violations 1,084 8,098 +647 201
Failure to wear seat belt 635 407 –36 10
Driver’s license suspensions for
impaired driving, speeding, or points 110 261 +137 6
Alcohol tests 8,178 11,230 +29 279
Preventive test (i.e., not 6,836 8,941 +31 222
subsequent to crash or violation)
Positive tests 167 376 +125 9
Fatalities 8.49 4.62 –49
Licensed drivers 40,322
NOTE: Citations include those issued by the two national police forces, which have jurisdiction on all
roads and streets and account for most enforcement activity. Citations by municipal police are not
included.
SOURCE: ONISR 2008, 14, 165–168, 172.
OCR for page 61
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 61
As an illustrative comparison, the state of Pennsylvania reports that in 2008, at all
sobriety checkpoints and roving patrols targeting impaired driving conducted by state and local
police, there were 227,000 “motorist contacts” (i.e., drivers stopped and observed by police), a
rate of 26 motorists contacted per 1,000 licensed drivers (PennDOT n.d., 16; FHWA 2009b,
Table DL-1C). Most motorists contacted would not have been administered alcohol tests. The
French rate (Table 3-1) of 222 drivers per 1,000 subjected to preventive alcohol tests (i.e., tests
not subsequent to a crash or citation) is 10 times the Pennsylvania rate of motorist contacts. In
New York State in 2007, 64 speeding tickets per 1,000 licensed drivers were issued by state and
local police (New York State Governor’s Traffic Safety Committee 2008, 22). Perhaps
surprisingly, in view of the extent of its automated speed control system, the French rate was
only three times higher, 201 tickets per 1,000 drivers. The rate of ticketing for failure to wear
seat belts in 2007 was higher in New York than in France (41 per 1,000 drivers in New York
versus 10 in France), probably reflecting the high rate of belt use in France (98 percent for front
seat occupants compared with 83 percent in New York in 2007).
Evaluations
The safety statistical agency has estimated that 40 percent of the reduction of fatalities in 2003
(Chapelon 2004) and 75 percent of the total reduction in casualties from 2002 through 2005
(CISR 2006, 6; ONISR 2006a) can be attributed to speed reductions over the period. The speed
and enforcement data suggest that the speed reduction was the result of the enforcement effort.
Reduced drunk driving, increased use of seat belts, a slowing of the rate of traffic growth, and
unidentified factors also are reported to have contributed to the fatality decline (Chapelon 2004).
The estimates of the effect of the speed control program were not based on analysis of the
correlation between changes in speed and changes in fatalities on French roads in the period of
introduction of the program. Rather, they were derived from a speed-versus-fatalities
relationship extracted from a review of the accident research literature, which was then applied
to the observed change in speed on French roads in the period (ONISR 2006a, 44).
Summary Observations
At least four circumstances seem to have been key to France’s recent successful effort to reduce
traffic fatalities. First, the program has received sustained high-level political direction. Second,
centralization of administration, together with the parliamentary system of government, allows
the government to act quickly and on a nationwide scale to implement policies and coordinate
activities among agencies and to plan and carry out a consistent long-term strategy. Third, the
government’s ability to take effective action has been facilitated by strong capabilities for data
collection, evaluation, research, and planning. The speed and efficiency of data collection are an
example of the advantages of centralization.
Finally, public attitudes and public communication probably have been major factors in
the outcome of the program. With 2,300 cameras on 950,000 km of roads, the French automatic
speed enforcement network is not very dense, yet the overall enforcement effort has produced a
worthwhile change in driver behavior. Substantial publicity has accompanied the speed camera
program and is believed to have amplified its effect. To recruit support, the government has
undertaken an outreach program aimed at businesses affected by work-related traffic casualties,
awards grants to numerous private safety advocacy organizations, and provides technical
OCR for page 82
82 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
State implementations of the new SHSP requirement were reviewed in case studies of
four states prepared in 2007 in NCHRP Project 17-18(016), Creating a Traffic Safety Culture,
and in a 2008 examination of six state plans conducted for FHWA (More and Munnich 2008). In
addition, a report by an industry group summarized the priorities identified in the plans of 21
states (ATSSA 2007).
Content of the SHSPs
The purposes of the AASHTO guidance and of the federal SHSP requirement are (a) to
encourage the states to take a multiyear perspective in program planning and in setting goals and
(b) to coordinate all government activities affecting traffic safety, including vehicle and driver
regulations, enforcement, highway design and operation, and emergency medical response. The
older federally required annual highway safety plans addressed to NHTSA are narrower in
scope; they address only programs funded with federal grants, in particular the NHTSA-
administered highway safety grant programs and the hazard elimination program.
Before the 2005 federal requirement, some states (e.g., Washington, Oregon, and
Wisconsin) had already prepared strategic safety plans in keeping with the AASHTO guidelines.
After 2005, all states prepared SHSPs, typically modeled on the AASHTO SHSP, with additions
to ensure that all the federally required elements are present. Most of the plans identify a list of,
typically, five to six highest-priority program areas (e.g., reducing impaired driving and
increasing seat belt use). The areas usually correspond to plan elements in the AASHTO
document (ATSSA 2007; More and Munnich 2008, 7). The discussion of each priority program
area in the plan often concludes with a list of relevant strategies (i.e., countermeasures),
following the format of the AASHTO model plan. In some plans the strategies are concrete and
specific, but in others they are stated generally. The strategies sometimes are described as
“suggested” or “recommended,” acknowledging that the authors of the plan cannot make a
commitment that the strategies will be carried out (More and Munnich 2008, 4; PennDOT 2006,
8–16).
The states’ annual highway safety plans addressed to NHTSA may refer to the priority
areas identified in the SHSP and report on actions and progress toward SHSP goals. For
example, Pennsylvania’s 2009 Highway Safety Plan lists goals for the year related to each of the
six focus areas in the state’s strategic plan. For the focus area of reducing impaired driving, the
2009 goal is to make 500,000 motorist contacts through driving-under-the-influence enforcement
activities (PennDOT 2008, 16).
In summarizing the SHSPs’ contents, the FHWA-sponsored review concluded that “the
six plans varied significantly in their overall completeness and depth. . . . Some plans prioritized
the issues in each emphasis area. Others took a more general approach, which did little more
than satisfy federal reporting requirements. . . . It is important to note however, that this was the
first time some states had created a safety plan. As these plans are revised, it is likely they will
become more complete and focused” (More and Munnich 2008, 7).
In 2009 FHWA released a draft SHSP implementation process model (FHWA 2009a).
The document and its supporting material are intended as a guide to the states for developing and
acting on their strategic safety plans. The guide is based on a review of the experience of six
model states and was produced in collaboration with NHTSA and the Federal Motor Carrier
Safety Administration. A 6-month, 10-state pilot test of the guide was conducted in 2009, and a
revised version was to have been issued in 2010.
OCR for page 83
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 83
Observations Concerning the SHSP Requirement
The state offices preparing the SHSPs are severely limited in their ability to make multiyear
commitments to sustain a strategy or to provide resources. The plans are prepared by the
executive branch agencies responsible for the state’s highways, with input from other state
agencies and from local governments. However, a state plan cannot commit local governments
to expend resources or to follow state direction in law enforcement and other activities relevant
to safety. States can provide incentives for local cooperation, but they have limited resources for
this purpose. In addition, safety program budgets are determined year to year by the legislature.
The executive agency plan cannot commit the legislature to any level of funding or to any
specific highway safety policy. The proponents of strategic planning expected the agencies
writing the SHSPs to publish visionary and comprehensive statements of aspirations for highway
safety over the next decade. However, the agencies, faced with the political reality of their
limited authority, often produce plans that address concretely only the limited range of actions
under their control.
The position of the U.S. state executive agencies contrasts with circumstances in most of
the benchmark nations. Highway administration in most other high-income countries is more
centralized than in the United States, and government ministers, at least in some cases, have been
able to make multiyear commitments to a policy course and for provision of resources.
The SHSPs cannot provide for or ensure accountability because of the weak position of
the state agencies preparing them and because of technical limits on state planning capacities.
Plans do not present quantitative arguments projecting how much the proposed countermeasures,
individually or collectively, will contribute toward attaining the quantitative safety goals. For
example, many states list curbing aggressive driving (i.e., the complex of hazardous behaviors
that includes speeding, illegal passing, tailgating, weaving, and ignoring signals) or speeding as
among their priorities. However, few states have any systematic measures of aggressive driving
(e.g., periodic speed surveys), and no state can project, on the basis of research evidence, the
expected quantitative impact on aggressive driving or speeding (or on the resulting casualties) of
the proposed countermeasures, at the level of effort that will be available.
Evidence is not available for determining how the states have changed their safety
programs since the introduction of the strategic plans. To determine whether changes have
occurred, systematic tracking of measures of level of effort and of intermediate outputs would be
necessary. In addition, without such information, plans cannot analyze the level of effort or
resources required to carry out the strategies they describe or how these requirements compare
with available resources. A 2008 NHTSA report acknowledges that only one intermediate
output measure, seat belt usage measured by roadside survey, is generally available for use in
federal and state highway safety planning and management and that only limited enforcement
level of effort measures (numbers of citations and arrests for certain violations) are available.
NHTSA states that it intends to cooperate with the Governors Highway Safety Association in
promoting speed monitoring as an additional intermediate output measure as well as in
promoting other measures of enforcement effort (Hedlund 2008, i–ii).
Shortcomings in state planning parallel the description in the World Bank Guidelines for
the Conduct of Road Safety Management Capacity Reviews of safety programs in countries
where safety management capacity is limited and a strong lead safety agency is absent. The
consequences of this lack, in the World Bank’s observation, are that “coordination arrangements
can be ineffective, supporting legislation fragmented, funding insufficient and poorly targeted,
OCR for page 84
84 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
promotional efforts narrowly and sporadically directed to key road user groups, monitoring and
evaluation systems ill-developed, and knowledge transfer limited. Interventions are fragmented
and often do not reflect good practice. Little is known about the results they achieve” (Bliss and
Breen 2009, 16). The World Bank guidelines include a checklist for evaluating the adequacy of
lead agency functions and powers (Bliss and Breen 2009, 38) that states could apply in assessing
their own safety organizational structure.
The constraints on the authority of the agencies preparing the SHSPs to make long-term
commitments with regard to strategy or resources are an unavoidable aspect of U.S. government
institutions. Despite these constraints, conditional commitments could be included in the plans.
That is, the plans could contain statements from the safety agencies that if they are given certain
specified resources, they will produce certain specified safety results. For such commitments to
be credible, the states would need much stronger capabilities than they now have for monitoring
and evaluating the costs and benefits of safety programs.
Uniform Guidelines for State Highway Safety Programs
The law that establishes the federal highway safety grant program requires that state highway
safety programs, to be eligible for federal grants, be “in accordance with uniform guidelines
promulgated by the Secretary [of Transportation]” (23 USC 402a). NHTSA has published 19
current guidelines, each outlining procedures for a particular safety program element. Among
them are guidelines on motorcycle safety, driver education, licensing, judicial services, impaired
driving, traffic records, emergency medical services, pedestrian and bicycle safety, traffic law
enforcement, speed management, occupant protection, vehicle inspection, vehicle registration,
legal codes, prosecutor training, debris cleanup, pupil transportation, accident investigation, and
roadway safety. The program elements addressed by the guidelines correspond to activities for
which the states may receive federal grants administered by NHTSA. The guidelines (originally
called “uniform standards”) have been a feature of the federal highway safety grant program
since it was founded in the Highway Safety Act of 1966. NHTSA explains the purpose of the
guidelines today as follows (NHTSA n.d. a):
These guidelines offer direction to States in formulating their highway safety plans for
highway safety efforts that are supported with section 402 and other grant funds. The
guidelines provide a framework for developing a balanced highway safety program and
serve as a tool with which States can assess the effectiveness of their own programs.
NHTSA encourages States to use these guidelines and build upon them to optimize the
effectiveness of highway safety programs conducted at the State and local levels.
The difficulties of developing and applying safety program standards in the federal
context are indicated by an examination of the speed management guideline, revised in 2006
(NHTSA 2006). The guideline has seven sections: program management; problem
identification; engineering countermeasures; communications program; enforcement
countermeasures; legislation, regulation, and policy; and data and evaluation. The program that
the guideline specifies reflects present understanding of the critical elements in successful traffic
safety programs. It is consistent with internationally recognized best practices as described in
the report of the OECD Speed Management Working Group (OECD and ECMT 2006b) and in
the Global Road Safety Partnership (GRSP) speed management manual (GRSP 2008). It
OCR for page 85
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 85
emphasizes the value of automated enforcement, as do the OECD and GRSP documents.
However, whether states or local governments possess the technical or managerial capacity to
conduct the program outlined in the guideline is questionable.
For most jurisdictions, following the guideline would require a radical change in
management practices and a large increase in resources devoted to traffic safety. A state
that wished to implement such a program would face significant obstacles. It would have
no basis for estimating the budget required or identifying the personnel and other
resources needed, no readily available source of technical support, and no basis for
communicating to senior executives and the legislature what the impact of implementing
such a program would be.
For example, the problem identification section of the guideline calls for rigorous
and detailed speed monitoring and evaluation of the effect of changes in speed limits
(NHTSA 2006, 2):
Each State should provide leadership, training, and technical assistance to:
• Monitor and report travel speed trends across the entire localized road network;
• Identify local road segments where excessive and inappropriate vehicle speeds
contribute to speeding-related crashes;
• Monitor the effects on vehicle speeds and crash risk of setting appropriate speed
limits; and
• Coordinate, monitor, and evaluate the short- and long-term effect of State
legislative and local changes that establish appropriate speed laws and posted speed
limits on mobility and safety.
However, as the section on speeding countermeasures in Chapter 4 describes, systematic speed
monitoring today is rare among state and local transportation agencies and (as noted in the
section above on safety plans) seldom used for safety program planning.
States also would encounter difficulties in following the section of the guideline on
communication (NHTSA 2006, 3), which stipulates the following:
The State should aid established Speed Management Working Groups by providing the
leadership, training, and technical assistance necessary to:
• Develop and evaluate culturally relevant public awareness campaigns to educate
drivers on the importance of obeying speed limits and the potential consequences of
speeding;
• Use market research to identify and clearly understand how, when, and where to
reach high-risk drivers;
Most states have conducted media campaigns aimed at speeding or aggressive driving, and
NHTSA offers technical advice on these campaigns (NHTSA 2009; NHTSA n.d. c). However,
actual evaluations of safety impacts or cost-effectiveness of publicity campaigns are not
available for guiding a state or local agency attempting to design such a marketing program
(Hedlund et al. 2009, 3-21, 4-11, 4-13).
State and local agencies can find more extensive qualitative discussions of procedures in
the NCHRP report A Guide for Reducing Speeding-Related Crashes (Neuman et al. 2009), one
OCR for page 86
86 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
of a series of guides developed to help state and local agencies implement the AASHTO SHSP.
However, the NCHRP report offers few examples to demonstrate the feasibility of the methods
proposed and no information about effectiveness. The report does not appear to be keyed to the
NHTSA guideline; for example, it offers no advice for carrying out the speed monitoring and
evaluation activities that NHTSA calls for. Additional guides are published by NHTSA, the
International Association of Chiefs of Police, and others, but practical documentation of actual
implementations that reduced crashes and casualties is lacking.
Quantitative Analysis Aids for Safety Planning
Safety planning and management require models analogous to those available to transportation
administrators for air quality, pavement condition, and congestion evaluation. Needs include
systems for screening of road networks, diagnosis of crash causes, and selection of cost-
beneficial countermeasures. Formal safety planning and management tools recently developed,
in part with federal government sponsorship and with sponsorship of the states through NCHRP,
can support some of these capabilities if the states devote the necessary resources to their proper
use. Among such tools are the Interactive Highway Safety Design Model, an expert system to
evaluate the safety of highways in the planning and design stage, and SafetyAnalyst, an expert
system to screen the road network for high-hazard locations and assess costs and benefits of
countermeasures (Box 3-7).
These analysis aids can strengthen state safety planning by supporting assessment of how
the state’s capital program contributes to meeting safety objectives. States can use the aids in
safety plans to set quantitative targets for their hazard elimination programs and for the safety
performance of planned new construction and to help guide allocation of resources among
roadway safety improvements and other safety programs.
The planning and analysis resources listed in Box 3-7 apply to highway design and traffic
control. No analogous tools exist to aid decisions concerning behavioral interventions.
However, since 2005, NHTSA has published and periodically revised Countermeasures That
Work (Hedlund et al. 2009), a compendium of information on the effectiveness, current use,
costs, and implementation time for most behavioral countermeasures (including measures against
impaired driving, speeding, and aggressive and distracted driving; promotion of seat belt use;
regulation of younger and older drivers; and motorcycle, pedestrian, and bicycle safety),
intended as a guide to safety administrators designing such programs.
OCR for page 87
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 87
Box 3-7
Analysis Tools and Planning Resources for State Safety Programs
• AASHTO SHSP Implementation Guides (AASHTO n.d.): Nineteen volumes in the
NCHRP Report 500 series identifying proven and unproven strategies, keyed to the
AASHTO plan
• Integrated Safety Management Process (NCHRP Report 501) (Bahar et al. 2003)
— Outlines procedure to optimize highway safety; emphasizes integration of
relevant agencies
— Measurable targets linked to federal requirements for state safety plans
— Component of AASHTO safety planning initiative
• Interactive Highway Safety Design Model (FHWA n.d. b)
— Expert system to evaluate highways in the planning and design stage
— Predicts expected crash rates on tangents and curves according to cross section,
median type, radius of curvature, and so forth
— Determines whether design violates standards
— Future module is for prediction of driver behavior (e.g., speed)
— Developed by FHWA
— Coordinated with development and organization of SafetyAnalyst and the
Highway Safety Manual
• SafetyAnalyst (FHWA n.d. c)
— Applicable to existing roads
— Expert system to
1. Screen road network for locations with higher-than-expected (for facility
type) crashes
2. Determine crash patterns (e.g., rear-end)
3. Diagnose the driver errors leading to those crashes and propose related
countermeasures
4. Assess costs and benefits of countermeasures given crash frequencies and
expected effectiveness
— Intended to guide project selection and resource allocation
• Highway Safety Manual (AASHTO 2010)
— Provides tools for evaluating safety consequences of road design and operational
decisions
— Includes the first U.S. compendium of accident modification factors [estimates of
safety consequences of design choices (e.g., for cross section, radius of curvature, median
type, shoulder type)] with a sound statistical basis
— Is expected to elevate the importance of safety considerations in the project
development process
• Human Factors Guidelines for Road Systems (Campbell et al. 2008)
— Comprehensive set of guidelines in uniform, practical format for design of
highway features (e.g., stopping sight distance, decision sight distance) based on driver
requirements
— Complement to Highway Safety Manual for completing detailed designs
OCR for page 88
88 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
Summary Observations on U.S. Nationally Organized Safety Initiatives
Evidence is lacking that the initiatives at the national level to reform traffic safety program
management methods are sufficient to have had an impact on established practices. USDOT-
sponsored demonstrations of new methods have been conducted with limited resources, and, at
least in some instances, evaluations were inadequate to show that the methods demonstrated
yielded results. Dissemination of lessons learned from the demonstrations sometimes appears to
have been ineffectual. The primary purpose of demonstrations is not basic research on
countermeasure effectiveness; however, if the goal is to induce states to adopt effective methods,
convincing evidence of effectiveness will be an essential selling point.
The NHTSA Uniform Guidelines, originally envisioned as standards defining acceptable
practice, are technically valid but presuppose technical and institutional capacities that state and
local governments generally do not possess.
The impact of the SHSPs, a major national initiative aimed at changing the methods and
procedures of traffic safety programs, is not yet evident. The state government agencies
preparing the plans have limited control over most of the resources and policies that form the
substance of traffic safety programs. Therefore, the plans do not embody commitments either to
effort or to results.
Given this political reality, an alternative and potentially more valuable format for the
SHSPs, rather than the lists of suggested or recommended actions that many now contain, would
be to propose conditional commitments; that is, the agencies administering state safety programs
would make commitments to produce specified safety results, provided they are given specified
levels of resources. Resources include funding as well as legal authority; for example, funding
for enforcement and publicity together with legal authority for sobriety checkpoints as
components of a state’s anti–drunk driving program.
REFERENCES
Abbreviations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ATSSA American Traffic Safety Services Association
CISR Comité Interministériel de la Sécurité Routière
DfT Department for Transport
ECMT European Council of Ministers of Transport
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GRSP Global Road Safety Partnership
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ONISR Observatoire National Interministériel de Sécurité Routière
PACTS Parliamentary Advisory Council for Transport Safety
PennDOT Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
AASHTO. 2005. AASHTO Strategic Highway Safety Plan. Washington, D.C.
AASHTO. 2010. Highway Safety Manual: 1st Edition. Washington, D.C.
AASHTO. n.d. Implementation Guides. http://safety.transportation.org/guides.aspx.
ATSSA. 2007. Strategic Highway Safety Plans: Compilation of State Safety Priorities. March.
OCR for page 89
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 89
Australian Transport Council. 2008. National Road Safety Action Plan 2009 and 2010. Nov.
Bahar, G., M. Masliah, C. Mollett, and B. Persaud. 2003. NCHRP Report 501: Integrated Safety
Management Process. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
Baxter, J., M. L. Halladay, and E. Alicandri. 2005. Safety Scans—A Successful Two-Way Street.
Public Roads, Vol. 69, No. 1, July–Aug.
Bliss, T., and J. Breen. 2009. Implementing the Recommendations of the World Report on Road Traffic
Injury Prevention: Country Guidelines for the Conduct of Road Safety Management Capacity
Reviews and the Specification of Lead Agency Reforms, Investment Strategies and Safe System
Projects. World Bank Global Road Safety Facility, June.
Breen, J., E. Howard, and T. Bliss. 2007. An Independent Review of Road Safety in Sweden. Dec.
http://www22.vv.se/filer/52611/independent_review_of_road_safety_in%20_sweden.pdf.
Broughton, J., R. E. Allsop, D. A. Lyman, and C. M. McMahon. 2000. The Numerical Context for
Setting National Casualty Reduction Targets. Transport Research Laboratory Ltd.
Broughton, J., and G. Buckle. 2008. Monitoring Progress Towards the 2010 Casualty Reduction Target:
2006 Data. Report 663. TRL Ltd., Oct. 8.
http://www.trl.co.uk/online_store/reports_publications/trl_reports/cat_road_user_safety/report_Monito
ring_progress_towards_the_2010_casualty_reduction_target_-_2006_data.htm.
Campbell, J. L., C. M. Richard, and J. L. Graham. 2008. NCHRP Report 600A: Human Factors
Guidelines for Road Systems: Collection A: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 22, 23, 26. Transportation
Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
Carnis, L. 2008. The French Automated Speed Enforcement Programme: A Deterrent System at Work.
Proc., Australasian Road Safety Research Policing Education Conference, Adelaide, South Australia,
Nov. 9–12, pp. 752–766. http://www.rsconference.com/pdf/RS080011.pdf.
Castle, J., D. Lynam, J. Martin, S. D. Lawson, and N. Klassen. 2007. Star Rating Roads for Safety: UK
Trials 2006–07. IAM Motoring Trust, Dec.
Chapelon, J. 2004. France: Recent Developments in the Field of Road Safety. Observatoire National
Interministériel de Sécurité Routière, Sept. 6.
CISR. 2006. Dossier de Presse. July 6.
D’Elia, A., S. Newstead, and M. Cameron. 2007. Overall Impact of Speed-Related Initiatives and
Factors on Crash Outcomes. 51st Annual Proceedings: Association for the Advancement of
Automotive Medicine: Annals of Advances in Automotive Medicine, Vol. 51, pp. 465–484.
DfT. 2001. Report on the Gloucester Safer City Project.
DfT. 2007. Second Review of the Government’s Road Safety Strategy. Feb. 26.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roadsafety/strategytargetsperformance/2ndreview/.
DfT. 2008a. Annual Report 2008. May.
DfT. 2008b. Road Casualties Great Britain: 2007: Annual Report. Sept. 25.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/accidents/casualtiesgbar/.
DfT. 2008c. Road Safety Compliance Consultation. Nov.
DfT. 2009a. Road Statistics 2008: Traffic, Speeds and Congestion. July.
DfT. 2009b. Transport Statistics Bulletin: National Travel Survey: 2008.
DfT. n.d. Seat Belts. http://www.dft.gov.uk/think/focusareas/invehiclesafety/seatbelts?page=Overview.
Documentation Française. 2006. La Sécurité Routière: Une Priorité Nationale.
http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/dossiers/securite-routiere/index.shtml.
Elvik, R. 2005. Has Progress in Road Safety Come to a Stop? A Discussion of Some Factors
Influencing Long Term Trends in Road Safety. Institute of Transport Economics, Nov.
Fazzalaro, J. J. 2006. Connecticut Participation in “Rational Speed Limit Project.” Connecticut Office
of Legislative Research, Aug. 4.
Fell, J. C., E. A. Langston, J. H. Lacey, A. S. Tippetts, and R. Cotton. 2008. Evaluation of Seven
Publicized Enforcement Demonstration Programs to Reduce Impaired Driving: Georgia, Louisiana,
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Indiana, and Michigan. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, Feb.
OCR for page 90
90 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
FHWA. 2005. Rational Speed Setting and Enforcement Demonstrations. Safety Programs Newsletter,
May–June.
FHWA. 2009a. The Essential Eight: Fundamental Elements and Effective Steps for SHSP
Implementation: Strategic Highway Safety Plan: Implementation Process Model: Draft. May 11.
FHWA. 2009b. Highway Statistics 2008.
FHWA. 2009c. International Technology Scanning Program. Updated June 26.
http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/scan/.
FHWA. n.d. a. Demonstration Projects on Setting and Enforcing Rational Speed Limits.
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/eng_spd_lmts/.
FHWA. n.d. b. IHSDM Overview. http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/ihsdm/ihsdm.htm.
FHWA. n.d. c. SafetyAnalyst Overview. http://www.safetyanalyst.org/index.htm.
Fiti, R., D. Perry, W. Giraud, and M. Ayres. 2008. Statistical Bulletin: Motoring Offences and Breath
Test Statistics: England and Wales 2006. United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, April.
Fitzgerald, S. 2002. Managing the Police and Road Design Interface. Presented at Trafinz Conference,
Dunedin, New Zealand, Sept. 9.
Freedman, M., D. De Leonardis, A. Polson, S. Levi, and E. Burkhardt. 2007. Test of the Impact of
Setting and Enforcing Rational Speed Limits in Gulfport, Mississippi. National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration, Oct.
Fuller, L. 2008. Statistics and World Studies. International Road Assessment Program.
http://www.saferoaddesign.com/media/2204/france.pdf.
GRSP. 2008. Speed Management: A Road Safety Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners.
Geneva. http://www.who.int/roadsafety/projects/manuals/speed_manual/speedmanual.pdf.
Guichet, B. 2005. Roundabouts in France: Safety and New Issues. Presented at National Roundabout
Conference, Vail, Colo., May 24.
http://www.teachamerica.com/Roundabouts/RA056A_ppt_Guichet.pdf.
Hedlund, J. 2008. Traffic Safety Performance Measures for States and Federal Agencies. National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Aug.
Hedlund, J. H., B. Harsha, W. A. Leaf, A. H. Goodwin, W. L. Hall, J. C. Raborn, L. J. Thomas, and M. E.
Tucker. 2009. Countermeasures That Work: A Highway Safety Countermeasures Guide for State
Highway Safety Offices: Fourth Edition 2009. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
Jackson, P., and C. Hilditch. 2010. A Review of Evidence Related to Drug Driving in the UK: A Report
Submitted to the North Review Team. Department for Transport, June.
Johansson, R. 2007. Vision Zero—The Swedish Traffic Safety Policy. Road Safety Scotland Annual
Seminar, Oct. 24. www.srsc.org.uk/Images/Roger%20Johansson_tcm4-455561.ppt.
Johnston, I. 2006. Halving Roadway Fatalities: A Case Study from Victoria, Australia, 1989–2004.
Federal Highway Administration, April.
Knodler, M. A., Jr., D. Hurwitz, and H. A. Rothenberg. 2008. Evaluation of Rationally Implemented
Speed Limits on Collector Roadways. Presented at 87th Annual Meeting of the Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C.
MacDonald, D., C. P. Yew, R. Arnold, J. R. Baxter, R. K. Halvorson, H. Kassoff, K. Philmus, T. J. Price,
D. R. Rose, and C. M. Walton. 2004. Transportation Performance Measures in Australia, Canada,
Japan, and New Zealand. Federal Highway Administration, Dec.
Mackie, A., and P. Wells. 2003. Gloucester Safer City: Final Report. TRL Ltd.
More, A., and L. Munnich, Jr. 2008. Rural Transportation Safety and the Strategic Highway Safety
Plan: An Examination of Select State Programs and Practices. Federal Highway Administration,
Feb. http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/5923/1/CTS08_02.pdf.
Neuman, T. R., K. L. Slack, K. K. Hardy, V. L. Bond, R. D. Foss, A. H. Goodwin, J. Sohn, D. J. Torbic,
D. W. Harwood, I. B. Potts, R. Pfefer, C. Raborn, and N. D. Lerner. 2009. NCHRP Report 500:
Guidance for Implementation of the AASHTO Strategic Highway Safety Plan: Volume 23: A Guide
for Reducing Speeding-Related Crashes. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies,
Washington, D.C.
OCR for page 91
National Safety Programs in Benchmark Countries and the United States 91
Newstead, S., I. Bobovski, S. Hosking, and M. Cameron. 2004. Evaluation of the Queensland Road
Safety Initiatives Package. Report 272. Monash University Accident Research Centre, Dec.
Newstead, S. V., M. H. Cameron, and S. Narayan. 1998. Further Modelling of Some Major Factors
Influencing Road Trauma Trends in Victoria: 1990–96. Monash University, April.
New York State Governor’s Traffic Safety Committee. 2008. New York State Highway Safety Strategic
Plan: FFY 2009.
NHTSA. 2006. Highway Safety Program Guideline No. 19: Speed Management. Nov.
NHTSA. 2009. Integrated National Communications Plan. March.
http://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/commplans.cfm.
NHTSA. n.d. a. Highway Safety Program Guidelines.
http://204.68.195.250/nhtsa/whatsup/tea21/tea21programs/.
NHTSA. n.d. b. State Highway Safety Documents.
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/nhtsa/whatsup/SAFETEAweb/index.htm.
NHTSA. n.d. c. Traffic Safety Marketing. http://www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/index.cfm.
OECD. n.d. International Road Traffic Accident Database. http://www.swov.nl/cognos/cgi-
bin/ppdscgi.exe?toc=%2FEnglish%2FIRTAD.
OECD and ECMT. 2006a. Country Reports on Road Safety Performance: France. Joint Transport
Research Centre, July.
OECD and ECMT. 2006b. Speed Management. Joint Transport Research Centre.
OECD and International Transport Forum. 2008a. Country Reports on Road Safety Performance:
France. July.
OECD and International Transport Forum. 2008b. Country Reports on Road Safety Performance:
Sweden. July.
OECD and International Transport Forum. 2008c. Country Reports on Road Safety Performance:
United Kingdom (Great Britain). July.
OECD and International Transport Forum. 2008d. Towards Zero: Ambitious Road Safety Targets and
the Safe System Approach: Summary Document. Joint Transport Research Centre.
http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/safety/targets/08TargetsSummary.pdf.
OECD and International Transport Forum. 2010. Press Release: A Record Decade for Road Safety:
International Transport Forum at the OECD Publishes Road Death Figures for 33 Countries. Sept. 15.
OECD and International Transport Forum. n.d. Country Reports on Road Safety Performance.
http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/safety/targets/Performance/performance.html.
ONISR. 2005. French Road Safety Policy. http://www.securiteroutiere.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/FRSP.pdf.
ONISR. 2006a. Impact du Contrôle Sanction Automatisé sur la Sécurité Routière (2003–2005).
ONISR. 2006b. Observatoire des Vitesses: Second Quadrimestre 2006. Oct. 20.
http://www.securiteroutiere.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/observatoire_vitesse.pdf.
ONISR. 2008. La Sécurité Routière en France: Bilan de l’Année 2007.
ONISR. 2009a. Observatoire des Vitesses: Premier Quadrimestre 2009. July.
ONISR. 2009b. Observatoire National: Statistiques des Accidents.
http://www2.securiteroutiere.gouv.fr/infos-ref/observatoire/index.html.
ONISR. 2009c. La Sécurité Routière en France: Bilan de l’Année 2008.
ONISR. 2010. Bilan de la Sécurité Routière du 1er Semestre 2010 en Données Provisoires: Premiers
Chiffres. July.
PA Consulting Group and UCL. 2005. The National Safety Camera Programme: Four-Year Evaluation
Report. Dec.
PACTS. 2008. Annual Review 07/08. Sept. 8. http://www.pacts.org.uk/briefings-and-
articles.php?id=69.
Peden, M., R. Scurfield, D. Sleet, D. Mohan, A. A. Hyder, E. Jarawan, and C. Mathers (eds.). 2004.
World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. World Health Organization.
PennDOT. 2006. Comprehensive Strategic Highway Safety Improvement Plan. Oct.
PennDOT. 2008. Highway Safety Plan: Federal Fiscal Year 2009.
OCR for page 92
92 Special Report 300: Achieving Traffic Safety Goals in the United States: Lessons from Other Nations
PennDOT. n.d. Highway Safety Annual Report: FY 2008.
Raynal, F. 2003. Road Safety: The French Change Direction. Label France, No. 52, 4th quarter.
http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/label-france_2554/presentation_8452.html.
Scrase, R. 2008. Circle of Influence: How France Has Used Roundabouts to Cut Casualties.
International Road Assessment Program. http://www.saferoaddesign.com/media/2204/france.pdf.
Son, H., M. Fontaine, and B. Park. 2007. Field Evaluation of Rational Speed Limits. Presented at 86th
Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
State Government of South Australia. 2008. South Australian Road Safety Action Plan 2008–2010.
July.
State Government of Victoria. 2001. Arrive Alive! Victoria’s Road Safety Strategy, 2002–2007. Nov.
http://www.arrivealive.vic.gov.au/index.html.
State Government of Victoria. 2008. Victoria’s Road Safety Strategy: Arrive Alive 2008–2017.
Syner, J., B. Jackson, L. Dankers, B. Naff, S. Hancock, and J. Siegler. 2008. Strategic Evaluation States
Initiative—Case Studies of Alaska, Georgia, and West Virginia. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, April.
Tarko, A. P. 2008. Can Enforcement and Education Affect Speed on County Roads? Presented at 87th
Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Wundersitz, L. N., K. Hiranandani, and M. R. J. Baldock. 2009. Annual Performance Indicators of
Enforced Driver Behaviours in South Australia, 2007. Centre for Automotive Safety Research,
University of Adelaide, Aug.
