National Academies Press: OpenBook
« Previous: 14 Polyphenols
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

15
Vitamin D

The requirement for the essential nutrient vitamin D can be met by a combination of de novo synthesis and intake, either from dietary sources or supplements. The form of vitamin D derived from plant sources is D2, while D3 is the form derived from the intake of animal-based foods. Vitamin D3 also can be synthesized from cholesterol by exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light. Both of these forms of vitamin D act as prohormones. Modified first by the liver enzyme 25-hydroxylase, vitamin D is then transported to the kidney microsomes where it is converted to the active hormonal form known as 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, or calcitriol.

The function of the hormonal form of vitamin D is mediated by the nuclear receptor vitamin D receptor (VDR), which acts as a DNA-binding protein to regulate the transcription of vitamin D–responsive genes. This mechanism of action is responsible for enhanced intestinal calcium absorption, kidney calcium reabsorption, and bone resorption of calcium. In this way, vitamin D regulates serum calcium and phosphate levels as well as bone metabolism. Although vitamin D’s role in calcium balance is most prominent in the literature, it is clear that vitamin D also plays a key role in the molecular processes that control cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival (Fleet, 2007). Consequently, in addition to the development of rickets and osteopenia, vitamin D deficiency has been linked to a variety of illnesses including hypertension and heart disease, obesity, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and an increased risk of cancer (Holick, 2007; Martini and Wood, 2008; Wood, 2008).

VITAMIN D AND THE BRAIN

Although the role of vitamin D in calcium absorption, serum calcium balance, and bone metabolism has long been recognized, its essential role in the brain and central nervous system (CNS) has only recently been appreciated. It is now known that the human brain expresses the enzyme 1 alpha-hydroxylase, responsible for the hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D to its active, hormonal form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D; as well as the nuclear receptor for vitamin D, VDR.

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

TABLE 15-1 Relevant Data Identified for Vitamin D

Reference

Type of Injury/Insult

Type of Study and Subjects

Treatment

Findings/Results

Tier 1: Clinical trials

None found

 

 

 

 

Tier 2: Observational studies

Buell et al., 2010

Stroke

Prospective cohort study (Nutrition and Memory in Elders)

 

25(OH)D insufficiency (10–20 ng/mL) was associated with twice the risk of stroke (ORb=2.29, 95% CIc: 1.09–4.83, p=0.03). But the association with stroke was not significant after stratifying for presence or absence of dementia.

na=318 patients ≥ 60 years old

Compared to patients taking sufficient levels (> 20 ng/mL) of 25(OH)D, deficient (< 10 ng/mL) patients had higher geometric mean white matter hypersensitivity (WMH) volume (p=0.004), higher WMH grade (p=0.02), and higher prevalence of large vessel infarcts (p < 0.01).

Tier 3: Animal studies

None found

 

 

 

 

a n: sample size.

b OR: relative risk.

c CI: confidence interval.

Although the roles of vitamin D in the CNS are not well understood, it appears that its function is largely mediated by VDR. This member of the steroid-thyroid nuclear receptor family is widely expressed in both the human and rodent cortex, spinal cord, amygdala, hypothalamus, cerebellum, mesopontine area, and diencephalon. VDR is particularly high in the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated not only with learning and memory, but also with emotion (Eyles et al., 2005). When the hormonal form of vitamin D associates with VDR in the nucleus, this complex can combine with the retinoic acid receptor RXR to produce heterodimers. Together, these two nutrients (vitamin D in the form of 1,25(OH)2-D3 and vitamin A in the form of 9-cis-retinoic acid) and their respective nuclear receptors (VDR and RXR) bind to specific sequences of DNA known as vitamin D response elements (VDREs). Binding of this complex to VDREs in the 5′-flanking region of vitamin D–responsive genes results in the regulation of gene transcription in the CNS, where it is now believed to participate in cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation and neuronal function (Levenson and Figueirôa, 2008).

Table 15-1 includes limited supporting evidence (1990 and later) from human studies on vitamin D supplementation for CNS injuries. Any adverse effects in humans are also listed.

USES AND SAFETY

The current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin D is 600 International Units (IU) per day for both male and female adults up to the age of 70 (IOM, 2010). At age 70, the RDA increases to 800 IU. There are a number of considerations to take into account when applying these recommendations to military populations and others at risk for

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

traumatic brain injury (TBI). First, the current RDAs for vitamin D were developed under conditions of minimal sun exposure (IOM, 2010), and therefore do not factor in the vitamin D synthesized in the skin through exposure to sunlight. More importantly, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) set the current RDA for vitamin D at a level found to be sufficient to maintain bone health and normal calcium metabolism in healthy people, the only outcome found to be associated with vitamin D status. It is not known whether the dietary vitamin D requirement for optimal brain function under normal or injured conditions should be different.

Median estimates of vitamin D intake from foods are below the Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) of 400 IU recently established by the IOM. However, vitamin D also is synthesized in the skin, and therefore vitamin D status is not accurately reflected exclusively by dietary intake. Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2000 to 2006, levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in serum, a depiction of total vitamin D exposure, were above 50 nmol/mL, the level identified as meeting the needs of most of the population. The IOM concluded that the population of North America, with the possible exception of the aging population and those with dark skin, is meeting its needs for vitamin D.

NHANES (2005–2006) data show that 37 percent of the U.S. population reported using vitamin D supplements. This is likely to be predominantly in the form of multivitamin supplements or as an adjunct to calcium supplementation. The current Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 4,000 IU. Excess dietary intake of vitamin D has been shown to cause vitamin D intoxication, which leads to hypercalcemia and, eventually, soft tissue calcification and resultant renal and cardiovascular damage.

EVIDENCE INDICATING EFFECT ON RESILIENCE

Human Studies

There have been no clinical trials to address the possibility that vitamin D supplementation may promote resilience to subsequent TBI. However, human data (in elderly populations) does indicate that failure to maintain adequate vitamin D nutriture is associated with diminished neurocognitive health. For example, plasma 25-hydroxy vitamin D concentrations of less than 20 ng/mL in individuals 65–99 years of age were associated with increased prevalence of dementia, and concentrations below 10 ng/mL were associated with increased cranial indicators (detected via magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) of cerebrovascular disease such as white matter hyperintensity volume and large vessel infarcts (Buell et al., 2010).

Animal Studies

Maintaining adequate vitamin D nutrition prior to injury may be critical for post-TBI treatment with progesterone, the only agent that has thus far shown therapeutic benefit in randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials. This possibility is based on a 2009 study conducted in aged rats (Cekic et al., 2009): vitamin D–replete animals showed a 50 percent reduction in spontaneous locomotor activity following contusion to the medial frontal cortex, but progesterone treatment fully restored activity. Rats deficient in vitamin D exhibited a similar reduction in locomotor activity following contusion, but treatment with either progesterone alone or vitamin D alone had no restorative effect. Although treatment with progesterone plus vitamin D did completely restore locomotor activity, the possible efficacy

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

of vitamin D as an adjunct to progesterone therapy is supported by in vitro data showing that pretreatment of cultured rat cortical neurons with either progesterone or vitamin D protected the cells from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. Pretreatment with progesterone in combination with some lower doses of vitamin D was more protective than progesterone alone (Atif et al., 2009).

This requirement for vitamin D is important in light of two very encouraging human studies involving progesterone. In the first, Wright and colleagues (2007) conducted a phase II clinical trial with TBI patients. The treated patient group achieved a significantly lower mortality rate at 30 days and improved scores on disability rating scales at 30 days and 1 year postinjury, compared to the placebo-treated patients; there were no serious adverse events observed. In the second study, Xiao and coworkers (2008) performed a human trial involving patients with severe TBI. These patients had significantly improved functional independence and Glasgow Outcome Scale scores at three and six months postinjury, and lower mortality at six months, compared to placebo-treated controls. Progesterone administration to patients with severe TBI is currently in phase III clinical trials.

Progesterone is best known as a steroid hormone involved in the regulation of reproductive function (Cannon, 1998), and in immunosuppression during pregnancy to guard against immunological rejection of the fetus (Arck et al., 2007). Progesterone is, however, also produced in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and other areas of the brains of both men and women, primarily by astrocytes (Micevych and Sinchak, 2008); receptors for progesterone are also located in the brain, many in regions associated with cognitive function (Wagner, 2008). There is growing evidence that neuroprogesterone produced in the brain can influence neurons by modulating membrane-bound receptors (including gamma-aminobutyric acid type A [GABAA] and glutamate receptors) and subsequently influencing neuronal excitotoxicity and apoptosis (reviewed in Leskiewicz et al., 2006). Progesterone may also promote myelin repair (Chesik and De Keyser, 2010; Labombarda et al., 2009). Potential neuroprotective mechanisms have been reviewed in the context of TBI by Stein (2008).

Although no published work has directly tested the hypothesis that vitamin D supplementation improves resilience to TBI in otherwise vitamin D–adequate animals, an examination of data collected using other models of brain injury suggests the need for more work in this area. For example, eight days of treatment with 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin-D3 reduced tissue damage in the rat brain subjected to the middle cerebral artery occlusion model of stroke (Wang et al., 2000). Interestingly, four days of vitamin D treatment were ineffective, suggesting a dose-response curve that needs to be examined.

EVIDENCE INDICATING EFFECT ON TREATMENT

Human Studies

There have been no clinical trials to assess the efficacy of vitamin D as a treatment for TBI or for other related diseases or conditions included in the review of the literature (subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial aneurysm, stroke, anoxic or hypoxic ischemia, epilepsy).

Animal Studies

No published studies have used vitamin D supplementation to treat TBI. In vitro work, however, has shown that vitamin D has direct neuroprotective and antiapoptotic functions, and protects cultured cortical neurons against excitotoxic damage (Kajta et al., 2009). The

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

same report further showed that administration of a single dose of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 (2 μg/kg) 30 minutes after hypoxia-ischemia in seven-day-old rats effectively reduced brain damage in these animals (Kajta et al., 2009). Although clearly very different from the accepted models of TBI, these data do suggest that future studies to examine the possible effectiveness of vitamin D in TBI models are warranted.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

An examination of the literature on the possible role of vitamin D in improving resilience to TBI and in the treatment of TBI has identified a number of unanswered questions that reveal gaps in our current knowledge. It is not known whether chronic vitamin D supplementation alone improves resilience. There also is no clear evidence yet to show the extent to which vitamin D supplementation is effective in treating TBI, the therapeutic window for treatment after TBI, or the optimal dose. Although it appears that adequate vitamin D status is necessary to the action of effective treatments such as progesterone, it is not currently known if vitamin D supplementation that exceeds recommended doses would improve progesterone efficacy or enhance other treatments. It is, however, recommended that military personnel ensure adequate intakes to meet the RDA for vitamin D. Because the current vitamin D status of military personnel is not definitive, the committee recommends in Chapter 5 that dietary assessments be conducted across military settings. A retrospective assessment of pre- and postinjury nutrition status is likewise recommended in Chapter 5. This should include investigating serum vitamin D levels in patients during the acute phase of TBI, with a range of severity from mild/concussion to severe injuries, to explore whether preinjury vitamin D levels are associated with different outcomes.

Progesterone was not included for independent evaluation in this report because, although it is incorporated in some dietary supplements, there was no evidence that these preparations will have positive effects on TBI. Although progesterone can be taken orally in a micronized form that enhances solubility in aqueous solutions and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (Fitzpatrick and Good, 1999), it appears that its positive effects in TBI are achieved only via intravenous administration and at therapeutic doses (Wright et al., 2005, 2007; Xiao et al., 2008). Although some phytoprogestins have been identified by their ability to bind progesterone receptors on the breast carcinoma cell line T47D (Zava et al., 1998), none of the herbal extracts that bound the receptors were agonists. They were either neutral or were progestin antagonists (examples include red clover, licorice, and nutmeg). Altogether, there is no evidence that oral administration of progesterone or phytoprogestins will provide a benefit as treatment for TBI.

RECOMMENDATION 15-1. The committee recommends more animal studies be conducted to determine if vitamin D enhances the beneficial actions of progesterone in the treatment of TBI. If this synergistic effect is confirmed in animals, then studies in humans should be conducted to evaluate the extent to which vitamin D supplementation might improve the efficacy of progesterone treatment.


RECOMMENDATION 15-2. Based on animal studies showing a requirement of vitamin D for the efficacy of progesterone therapy, future animal studies are recommended to test the efficacy of using vitamin D supplements to improve resilience to TBI. Should the data from animal studies support use of this steroid hormone, human trials should be implemented to test the efficacy of vitamin D in populations at high risk for TBI.

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×

REFERENCES

Arck, P., P. J. Hansen, B. M. Jericevic, M.-P. Piccinni, and J. Szekeres-Bartho. 2007. Progesterone during pregnancy: Endocrine-immune cross talk in mammalian species and the role of stress. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 58(3):268–279.

Atif, F., I. Sayeed, T. Ishrat, and D. G. Stein. 2009. Progesterone with vitamin D affords better neuroprotection against excitotoxicity in cultured cortical neurons than progesterone alone. Molecular Medicine 15(9–10):328–336.

Buell, J. S., B. Dawson-Hughes, T. M. Scott, D. E. Weiner, G. E. Dallal, W. Q. Qui, P. Bergethon, I. H. Rosenberg, M. F. Folstein, S. Patz, R. A. Bhadelia, and K. L. Tucker. 2010. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, dementia, and cerebrovascular pathology in elders receiving home services. Neurology 74(1):18–26.

Cannon, J. G. 1998. Adaptive interactions between cytokines and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 856:234–242.

Cekic, M., S. M. Cutler, J. W. vanLandingham, and D. G. Stein. 2009. Vitamin D deficiency reduces the benefits of progesterone treatment after brain injury in aged rats. Neurobiology of Aging. Published electronically May 29, 2009. doi:10.1016/jneurobiolaging.2009.04.017.

Chesik, D., and J. De Keyser. 2010. Progesterone and dexamethasone differentially regulate the IGF system in glial cells. Neuroscience Letters 468(3):178–182.

Eyles, D. W., S. Smith, R. Kinobe, M. Hewison, and J. J. McGrath. 2005. Distribution of the vitamin D receptor and 1α-hydroxylase in human brain. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 29(1):21–30.

Fitzpatrick, L. A., and A. Good. 1999. Micronized progesterone: Clinical indications and comparison with current treatments. Fertility and Sterility 72(3):389–397.

Fleet, J. C. 2007. What have genomic and proteomic approaches told us about vitamin D and cancer? Nutrition Reviews 65(8):S127–S130.

Holick, M. F. 2007. Vitamin D deficiency. The New England Journal of Medicine 357(3):266–281.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2010. Dietary Reference Intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Kajta, M., D. Makarewicz, E. Zieminska, D. Jantas, H. Domin, W. Lason, A. Kutner, and J. W. Lazarewicz. 2009. Neuroprotection by co-treatment and post-treating with calcitriol following the ischemic and excitotoxic insult in vivo and in vitro. Neurochemistry International 55(5):265–274.

Labombarda, F., S. L. Gonzalez, A. Lima, P. Roig, R. Guennoun, M. Schumacher, and A. F. de Nicola. 2009. Effects of progesterone on oligodendrocyte progenitors, oligodendrocyte transcription factors, and myelin proteins following spinal cord injury. Glia 57(8):884–897.

Leskiewicz, M., B. Budziszewska, A. Basta-Kaim, A. Zajac, M. Kacinski, and W. Lason. 2006. Effects of neurosteroids on neuronal survival: Molecular basis and clinical perspectives. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 66(4):359–367.

Levenson, C. W., and S. M. Figueirôa. 2008. Gestational vitamin D deficiency: Long-term effects on the brain. Nutrition Reviews 66(12):726–729.

Martini, L. A., and R. J. Wood. 2008. Vitamin D and blood pressure connection: Update on epidemiologic, clinical, and mechanistic evidence. Nutrition Reviews 66(5):291–297.

Micevych, P., and K. Sinchak. 2008. Minireview: Synthesis and function of hypothalamic neuroprogesterone in reproduction. Endocrinology 149(6):2739–2742.

Stein, D. G. 2008. Progesterone exerts neuroprotective effects after brain injury. Brain Research Reviews 57(2):386–397.

Wagner, C. K. 2008. Minireview: Progesterone receptors and neural development: A gap between bench and bedside? Endocrinology 149(6):2743–2749.

Wang, Y., Y. H. Chiang, T. P. Su, T. Hayashi, M. Morales, B. J. Hoffer, and S. Z. Lin. 2000. Vitamin D-3 attenuates cortical infarction induced by middle cerebral arterial ligation in rats. Neuropharmacology 39(5):873–880.

Wood, R. J. 2008. Vitamin D and adipogenesis: New molecular insights. Nutrition Reviews 66(1):40–46.

Wright, D. W., J. C. Ritchie, R. E. Mullins, A. L. Kellermann, and D. D. Denson. 2005. Steady-state serum concentrations of progesterone following continuous intravenous infusion in patients with acute moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 45(6):640–648.

Wright, D. W., A. L. Kellermann, V. S. Hertzberg, P. L. Clark, M. Frankel, F. C. Goldstein, J. P. Salomone, L. L. Dent, O. A. Harris, D. S. Ander, D. W. Lowery, M. M. Patel, D. D. Denson, A. B. Gordon, M. M. Wald, S. Gupta, S. W. Hoffman, and D. G. Stein. 2007. ProTECT: A randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury. Annals of Emergency Medicine 49(4):391–402.

Xiao, G., J. Wei, W. Yan, W. Wang, and Z. Lu. 2008. Improved outcomes from the administration of progesterone for patients with acute severe traumatic brain injury: A randomized controlled trial. Critical Care 12(2):R61.

Zava, D. T., C. M. Dollbaum, and M. Blen. 1998. Estrogen and progestin bioactivity of foods, herbs and spices. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 217(3):369–378.

Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 227
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 228
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 229
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 230
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 231
Suggested Citation:"15 Vitamin D." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13121.
×
Page 232
Next: 16 Zinc »
Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $86.00 Buy Ebook | $69.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) accounts for up to one-third of combat-related injuries in Iraq and Afghanistan, according to some estimates. TBI is also a major problem among civilians, especially those who engage in certain sports. At the request of the Department of Defense, the IOM examined the potential role of nutrition in the treatment of and resilience against TBI.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!