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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

FUNGAL DISEASES

An Emerging Threat to Human,
Animal, and Plant Health

Workshop Summary

LeighAnne Olsen, Eileen R. Choffnes, David A. Relman,
and Leslie Pray, Rapporteurs

Forum on Microbial Threats
Board on Global Health

INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE
             OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Washington, D.C.

www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS   500 Fifth Street, N.W.   Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.

Financial support for this project was provided by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, and the Fogarty International Center; U.S. Department of Defense, Department of the Army: Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System, Medical Research and Materiel Command, and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; U.S. Department of Homeland Security; U.S. Agency for International Development; American Society for Microbiology; sanofi pasteur; Burroughs Wellcome Fund; Pfizer, Inc.; GlaxoSmithKline; Infectious Diseases Society of America; and the Merck Company Foundation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-21226-7
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-21226-X

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The serpent has been a symbol of long life, healing, and knowledge among almost all cultures and religions since the beginning of recorded history. The serpent adopted as a logotype by the Institute of Medicine is a relief carving from ancient Greece, now held by the Staatliche Museen in Berlin.

Cover images: Front (upper): Little brown bats with white-nose syndrome, New York, photo courtesy of New York Department of Environmental Conservation; Front (lower): Yellow stripe rust on wheat, photo courtesy of Stephen A. Harrison, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center. Spine: The Panamanian golden frog (Atelopus zeteki), photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, photo by Brian Gratwicke, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute. Back: Geomyces destructans, shown in a false-color SEM image (fungus hyphae are yellow, green, and orange; spores are blue), image reprinted from Chaturvedi et al. (2010) Morphological and Molecular Characterizations of Psychrophillic Fungus Geomyces destructans from New York Bats with White Nose Syndrome (WNS). PLoS ONE 5(5): e10783. Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010783.

Suggested citation: IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

Knowing is not enough; we must apply.
Willing is not enough; we must do.
”      

                                                —Goethe

image

INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE
              OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advising the Nation. Improving Health.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.

www.national-academies.org

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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FORUM ON MICROBIAL THREATS1

DAVID A. RELMAN (Chair), Stanford University and Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California

JAMES M. HUGHES (Vice-Chair), Global Infectious Diseases Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

LONNIE J. KING (Vice-Chair), Ohio State University, Columbus

KEVIN ANDERSON, Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC

RUTH L. BERKELMAN, Center for Public Health Preparedness and Research, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

DAVID BLAZES,2 Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Division of Global Emerging Infectious Surveillance, Silver Spring, Maryland

ENRIQUETA C. BOND, Burroughs Wellcome Fund (Emeritus), Marshall, Virginia

ROGER BREEZE, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California

STEVEN J. BRICKNER,3 SJ Brickner Consulting, LLC, Ledyard, Connecticut

PAULA R. BRYANT, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Medical S&T Division, Fort Belvoir, Virginia

JOHN E. BURRIS, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

ARTURO CASADEVALL,2 Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York

PETER DASZAK, EcoHealth Alliance, New York, New York

JEFFREY S. DUCHIN, Public Health–Seattle and King County, Seattle, Washington

JONATHAN EISEN, Genome Center, University of California, Davis

MARK B. FEINBERG, Merck Vaccine Division, Merck & Co., West Point, Pennsylvania

JACQUELINE FLETCHER, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater

S. ELIZABETH GEORGE,3 Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC

JESSE L. GOODMAN, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland

EDUARDO GOTUZZO, Instituto de Medicina Tropical–Alexander von Humbolt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru

CAROLE A. HEILMAN, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland

______________

1 Institute of Medicine Forums and Roundtables do not issue, review, or approve individual documents. The responsibility for the published workshop summary rests with the workshop rapporteurs and the institution.

2 Forum member since September 1, 2011.

3 Forum member until December 31, 2010.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

DAVID L. HEYMANN, Health Protection Agency, London, United Kingdom

PHILIP HOSBACH, sanofi pasteur, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania

STEPHEN ALBERT JOHNSTON, Arizona BioDesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe

KENT KESTER, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland

GERALD T. KEUSCH, Boston University School of Medicine and Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts

RIMA F. KHABBAZ, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

STANLEY M. LEMON, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

EDWARD McSWEEGAN, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland

MARK A. MILLER, Fogarty International Center, Bethesda, Maryland

PAUL F. MILLER,4 Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut

STEPHEN S. MORSE,5 Center for Public Health Preparedness, Columbia University, New York, New York

GEORGE POSTE, Complex Adaptive Systems Initiative, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

JOHN C. POTTAGE, JR., ViiV Healthcare, Collegeville, Pennsylvania

DAVID RIZZO,6 Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis

GARY A. ROSELLE, Veterans Health Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs, Cincinnati, Ohio

ALAN S. RUDOLPH, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia

KEVIN RUSSELL, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Department of Defense, Silver Spring, Maryland

JANET SHOEMAKER, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC

P. FREDERICK SPARLING, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

TERENCE TAYLOR, International Council for the Life Sciences, Arlington, Virginia

MURRAY TROSTLE, U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, DC

MARY E. WILSON, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts

______________

4 Forum member until July 31, 2011.

5 Forum member until December 31, 2010.

6 Forum member since September 1, 2011.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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Staff

EILEEN CHOFFNES, Director

LEIGHANNE OLSEN, Program Officer

KATHERINE McCLURE, Senior Program Associate

COLLIN WEINBERGER, Research Associate (until May 2011)

REBEKAH HUTTON, Research Associate (from June 2011)

ROBERT GASIOR, Senior Program Assistant (until March 2011)

PAMELA BERTELSON, Senior Program Assistant (since September 2011)

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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BOARD ON GLOBAL HEALTH1

Richard Guerrant (Chair), Thomas H. Hunter Professor of International Medicine and Director, Center for Global Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville

Jo Ivey Boufford (IOM Foreign Secretary), President, New York Academy of Medicine, New York

Claire V. Broome, Adjunct Professor, Division of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

Jacquelyn C. Campbell, Anna D. Wolf Chair, and Professor, Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing, Baltimore, Maryland

Thomas J. Coates, Professor, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California

Gary Darmstadt, Director, Family Health Division, Global Health Program, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington

Valentin Fuster, Director, Wiener Cardiovascular Institute Kravis Cardiovascular Health Center Professor, Cardiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, New York

James Hospedales, Coordinator, Chronic Disease Project, Health Surveillance and Disease Management Area, Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization, Washington, DC

Peter J. Hotez, Professor and Chair, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC

Clarion Johnson, Global Medical Director, Medicine and Occupational Medicine Department, Exxon Mobil, Fairfax, Virginia

Fitzhugh Mullan, Professor, Department of Health Policy, George Washington University, Washington, DC

Guy Palmer, Regents Professor of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Director of the School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University

Jennifer Prah-Ruger, Associate Professor, Division of Health Policy and Administration, Yale University School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut

Staff

Patrick Kelley, Director

Angela Mensah, Program Associate

______________

1 Institute of Medicine boards do not review or approve individual workshop summaries. The responsibility for the content of the workshop summary rests with the authors and the institution.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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Reviewers

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

Beth Bell, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Michael Jeger, Imperial College London

Karen Lips, University of Maryland

Victoria McGovern, Burroughs Wellcome Fund

John W. Taylor, University of California at Berkeley

Brett Tyler, Virginia Bioinformatics Institute

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Dr. Melvin Worth. Appointed by the Institute of Medicine, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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Acknowledgments

The Forum on Emerging Infections was created by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 1996 in response to a request from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The purpose of the Forum is to provide structured opportunities for leaders from government, academia, and industry to regularly meet and examine issues of shared concern regarding research, prevention, detection, and management of emerging, reemerging, and novel infectious diseases in humans, plants, and animals. In pursuing this task, the Forum provides a venue to foster the exchange of information and ideas, identify areas in need of greater attention, clarify policy issues by enhancing knowledge and identifying points of agreement, and inform decision makers about science and policy issues. The Forum seeks to illuminate issues rather than resolve them. For this reason, it does not provide advice or recommendations on any specific policy initiative pending before any agency or organization. Its value derives instead from the diversity of its membership and from the contributions that individual members make throughout the activities of the Forum. In September 2003, the Forum changed its name to the Forum on Microbial Threats.

The Forum on Microbial Threats and the IOM wish to express their warmest appreciation to the individuals and organizations who gave their valuable time to provide information and advice to the Forum through their participation in the planning and execution of this workshop. A full list of presenters, and their biographical information, may be found in Appendixes B and F, respectively.

The Forum gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the members of the

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

planning committee1: Gerald Keusch (Boston University), Rima Khabbaz (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), Lonnie King (Ohio State University), Victoria McGovern (Burroughs Wellcome Fund), Carol Meteyer (United States Geological Service, National Wildlife Health Center), John Perfect (Duke University), Erica Rosenblum (University of Idaho), Kevin Russell (Department of Defense), Fred Sparling (University of North Carolina), and James Stack (Kansas State University).

The Forum is indebted to IOM staff who tirelessly contributed throughout the planning and execution of the workshop and the production of this workshop summary report. On behalf of the Forum, we gratefully acknowledge these efforts led by Dr. Eileen Choffnes, director of the Forum; Dr. LeighAnne Olsen, program officer; Katherine McClure, senior program associate; Collin Weinberger and Rebekah Hutton, research associates; and Robert Gasior and Pamela Bertelson, senior program assistants, for dedicating much effort and time to developing this workshop’s agenda and for their thoughtful and insightful approach and skill in planning for the workshop and in translating the workshop’s proceedings and discussion into this workshop summary report. We would also like to thank the following IOM staff and consultants for their valuable contributions to this activity: Greta Gorman, Jill Grady, Laura Penny, Heather Phillips, Leslie Pray, Elisabeth Reese, Vilija Teel, and Jordan Wyndelts.

Finally, the Forum wishes to recognize the sponsors that supported this activity. Financial support for this project was provided by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: NIH, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, CDC, Food and Drug Administration, and the Fogarty International Center2; U.S. Department of Defense, Department of the Army: Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System, Medical Research and Materiel Command, and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; U.S. Department of Homeland Security; U.S. Agency for International Development; American Society for Microbiology; sanofi pasteur; Burroughs Wellcome Fund; Pfizer, Inc.; GlaxoSmithKline; Infectious Diseases Society of America; and the Merck Company Foundation. The views presented in this workshop summary report are those of the workshop participants and rapporteurs and are not necessarily those of the Forum on Microbial Threats or its sponsors.

______________

1 Institute of Medicine (IOM) planning committees are solely responsible for organizing the workshop, identifying topics, and choosing speakers. The responsibility for the published workshop summary rests with the workshop rapporteurs and the institution.

2 Sponsor as of October 1, 2010.

Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×

A7     Surveillance for Emerging Diseases in Wildlife

Peter Daszak, Carlos Zambrana-Torrelio, and Tiffany Bogich

A8     Geography, Climate, Dust, and Disease: Epidemiology of Valley Fever (Coccidioidomycosis) and Ways It Might Be Controlled

John N. Galgiani

A9     Cryptococcus gattii: An Emerging Pathogen in the United States

Julie R. Harris

A10    Sexual Reproduction, Evolution, and Adaptation of Cryptococcus gattii in the Pacific Northwest Outbreak

Joseph Heitman, Edmond J. Byrnes III, and John R. Perfect

A11    Yeast Infections—Human Genetics on the Rise

Steven M. Holland and Donald C. Vinh

A12    The Increased Risk of Global Wheat Rust Pandemics: Putting Yellow Rust into Perspective

Mogens Støvring Hovmøller

A13    Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Animals: Similarities and Differences

Barbara Howlett

A14    Climate, Globalization, and Trade: Impacts on Dispersal and Invasion of Fungal Plant Pathogens

Michael Jeger, Marco Pautasso, and James Stack

A15    Emerging Fungal Diseases of Wild Animal Species

Luis R. Padilla

A16    The Emergence of Phytophthora ramorum in North America and Europe

David M. Rizzo, Ross K. Meentemeyer, and Matteo Garbelotto

A17    Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Fungal Disease Emergence and Spread

Compton J. Tucker, Karina Yager, Assaf Anyamba, and Kenneth

J. Linthicum

A18    Host-Pathogen Dynamics of Amphibian Chytridiomycosis: The Role of the Skin Microbiome in Health and Disease

Vance T. Vredenburg, Cheryl J. Briggs, and Reid Harris

A19    The Effect of Trade-Mediated Spread of Amphibian Chytrid on Amphibian Conservation

Ché Weldon and Matthew C. Fisher

A20    White-Nose Syndrome Fungus (Geomyces destructans) in Bats, Europe

Gudrun Wibbelt, Andreas Kurth, David Hellmann, Manfred
Weishaar, Alex Barlow, Michael Veith, Julia Prüger, Tamás
Görföl, Lena Grosche, Fabio Bontadina, Ulrich Zöphel, Hans-
Peter Seidl, Paul M. Cryan, and David S. Blehert

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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A21    Pan-European Distribution of White-Nose Syndrome Fungus (Geomyces destructans) Not Associated with Mass Mortality

Sébastien J. Puechmaille, Gudrun Wibbelt, Vanessa Korn,
Hubert Fuller, Frédéric Forget, Kristin Mühldorfer, Andreas
Kurth, Wieslaw Bogdanowicz, Christophe Borel, Thijs Bosch,
Thomas Cherezy, Mikhail Drebet, Tamás Görföl, Anne-Jifke
Haarsma, Frank Herhaus, Guénael Hallart, Matthias Hammer,
Christian Jungmann, Yann Le Bris, Lauri Lutsar, Matti Masing,
Bart Mulkens, Karsten Passior, Martin Starrach, Andrzej
Wojtaszewski, Ulrich Zöphel, and Emma C. Teeling

B  Agenda

C  Acronyms

D  Glossary

E  Forum Member Biographies

F  Speaker Biographies

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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A20-1 Bats Tested for Geomyces destructans by Using Microscopy, Fungal Culture, or PCR Analysis, by Country, Europe
A20-2 Fungal Culture and PCR Results for 23 Bats with Evidence of Fungal Colonization Tested by Light or Electron Microscopy, Europe
A21-1 Confirmed Records of Geomyces destructans on Hibernating Bats in Europe and Details of the Culture and Genetic Analyses
A21-2 Suspected Photographic Records of Geomyces destructans on Hibernating Bats in Europe
A21-3 Suspected Visual Records of Geomyces destructans on Hibernating Bats in Europe

FIGURES

WO-1 The fungal kingdom
WO-1-1 Leafcutter ants tending their fungal garden
WO-2 Diversity of fungal morphology
WO-3 Depiction of starving Irish children in 1847 potato famine
WO-4 The epidemiological triad
WO-5 Global aviation network
WO-6 Selected dispersal events of fungal pathogens
WO-7 Environmental disturbances and dust storms contribute to the dispersal of fungal spores
WO-8 Change in precipitation between the 1971–2000 average and the 2091–2100 average in inches of liquid water/year
WO-9 Incidence of systemic fungal disease has increased since the 1950s
WO-10 Damage response framework
WO-11 Microbial flora as a host defense
WO-12 Map of the Pacific Northwest, comprising parts of British Columbia, Canada, and the states of Washington and Oregon in the United States, showing human and veterinary Cryptococcus gattii cases
WO-13 Environmental sampling for Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia (2001–2009)
WO-14 Signs of bat white-nose syndrome (WNS)
WO-15 Spread of bat white-nose syndrome (WNS) in North America as of April 21, 2011
WO-16 Species affected by bat white-nose syndrome (WNS)
WO-17 Global distribution of Bd
WO-18 A chytridiomycosis outbreak in southern mountain yellow-legged frogs
WO-19 Sudden oak death and ramorum blight
WO-20 P. ramorum “migration” pathways
WO-21 Wheat production regions worldwide
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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WO-22 Yellow “stripe” rust on wheat
WO-23 Presence of “trace” and “severe” levels of yellow rust in North America since 2000
WO-24 Roles and responsibilities for monitoring pathogens in humans, animals, plants, food, and the environment in the United States
WO-25 Risk for sudden oak death in the continental United States, based on agreement among five spatially referenced models
WO-26 Mechanisms of action of selected antifungals
WO-27 Frogs in the Sierra Nevada region, being treated in baths containing a fungicidal bacterium in hopes of eliminating infection by the fungal pathogen (Bd) associated with the deadly disease: amphibian chytridiomycosis
WO-28 Panamanian golden frog (Atelopus zeteki)
A1-1 Map of the forecasted ecologic niche and region of emergence of C. gattii in British Columbia (BC)
A2-1 Diagrammatic representation of relationships of fungal taxa, examples (ex.), and approximate number of species in each group
A2-2 Images of representative fungal groups
A2-3 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Y-2235), baker’s yeast and model organism
A2-4 Anaptychia ciliaris
A2-5 Ectomycorrhizal root
A2-6 Excavation of deeply entrenched nest of the ant Atta texana requires heavy equipment or, alternatively, ground-penetrating radar to map such nests
A2-7 Hirsutella citriformis (Ophiostomataceae) on a delphacid planthopper
A3-1 Fungal phyla and approximate number of species in each group
A3-2 Lemonniera sp.
A3-3 The aero-aquatic ascomycete Helicoon gigantisporum produces distinctive tightly coiled conidia
A3-4 The smut Testicularia sp. develops in the ovary of grasses and (as shown here) sedges
A3-5 Perithecia of Pyxidiophora sp. (Laboulbeniomycetes) developed in moist chamber on moose dung from Meredith Station, New Brunswick, Canada
A3-6 The ca. 8 cm wide basidiomata of Pycnoporus sp., a wide-ranging, brightly colored, wood-decaying polypore, photographed at Barro Colorado Island, Panama
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
×
A3-7 Peniphorella baculorubrensis, a bark-decaying basidiomycete common on and restricted to living live oak (Quercus virginiana), decays the bark and changes its water-holding capacity
A3-8 Basidiomata of Perenniporia phloiophila on the bark of living Quercus virginiana
A3-9 A basidioma (8 cm diameter) of the wood-decaying fungus, Favolus tenuiculus, a favorite food of several species of mushroom-feeding beetles
A3-10 The small (>10 mm long) brightly colored beetle, Mycotretus sp. (Erotylidae), was collected at Barro Colorado Island, Panama
A3-11 Numbers of known fungi from the Dictionary of the Fungi (editions 1–10, 1950–2008)
A4-1 Occurrence of white-nose syndrome and/or Geomyces destructans in the United States (by county) and Canada (by county or district) from winter 2005/2006 through April 2011
A4-2 Micrograph of Geomyces destructans showing distinctive asymmetrically curved conidia either free or borne singly at the tips and sides of branched conidiophores
A4-3A Three little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) photographed by Alan Hicks (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation) in Graphite Mine, New York in November, 2008
A4-3B Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stained microscopic section of wing membrane from a little brown bat with white-nose syndrome collected in Pennsylvania in February, 2009
A4-4 Colony expansion rates of Geomyces destructans when grown on cornmeal agar at 3, 7, 14, and 20°C
A5-1 Organism fitness as a function of body temperature
A6-1 Frequency histogram of thermal growth tolerance for 4802 fungal strains
A7-1 Proportion of emerging infectious diseases caused by different taxonomic groups of pathogens
A8-1 Annual cases of coccidioidomycosis
A9-1 Human infections with C. gattii, United States, December 2004–January 2011
A9-2 U.S. human cases of C. gattii, by year of illness onset
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." Institute of Medicine. 2011. Fungal Diseases: An Emerging Threat to Human, Animal, and Plant Health: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13147.
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A10-1 The C. gattii outbreak expanded into, and emerged within, the United States
A10-2 Cryptococcus pathogenic species complex
A10-3 Cryptococcus neoformans can reproduce unisexually and bisexually
A10-4 Sexual reproduction and the origin of an outbreak
A11-1 Mechanisms of fungal sensing and control
A12-1 Typical macroscopic symptoms of rust infections on adult wheat plants
A12-2 Map indicating the distribution of global wheat production and regions of recent yellow rust epidemics
A14-1 The increase in goods (109 tons × km) moved in the United Kingdom from the 1930s to the 1990s
A14-2 The world in 1897, with British possessions marked in red
A16-1 Current distribution of Phytophthora ramorum in California and Oregon forests
A17-1 Summary of observations that show the Earth is warming (red arrows) while the Sun has been constant over the same period of time
A17-2 A comparison of the existing four global surface temperature datasets that are used in climate analyses
A17-3 Sea-level rise based on radar altimeters from TOPEX and Jason, with seasonal variations removed
A17-4 A comparison between the total solar irradiance and the NASA/GISS surface temperature data, both from 1979 to 2010
A17-5 Representation of a general circulation model
A17-6 Change in precipitation between the 1971–2000 average and the 2091–2100 average in inches of liquid water/year
A17-7 Rift Valley fever major outbreak events plotted against time and the Southern Oscillation Index, a measure of the phase of El Niño/Southern Oscillation events
A17-8 Summary Rift Valley fever (RVF) risk maps for (A) Eastern Africa: September 2006–May 2007; (B) Sudan: May 2007–December 2007; (C) Southern Africa: September 2007–May 2008; and (D) Madagascar: September 2007–May 2008
A17-9 Stem rust symptoms on wheat
A17-10 False-color Landsat satellite data (RGB 642) showing glaciers as the blue colors. The green colors represent green vegetation and the red colors represent areas of rock, sand, and soil
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A18-1 Decline of (A) Sierra Nevada mountain yellow-legged frog, Rana sierrae, and (B) southern mountain yellow-legged frog, Rana muscosa, in California, USA
A18-2 Maps of the three study metapopulations showing the spread of Bd and frog population status (adults only) during a 4-year period following the initial detection of Bd
A18-3 Frog Bd dynamics in eight intensively sampled populations in Milestone and Sixty Lake basins before and after detection of Bd
A19-1 Maps indicating (A) the global prevalence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. (B) Regional U.S. prevalence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
A20-1 (A) Greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis) with white fungal growth around its muzzle, ears, and wing membranes. (B) Scanning electron micrograph of a bat hair colonized by Geomyces destructans
A20-2 Locations in Europe of bats positive for Geomyces destructans by PCR alone (circles) or by PCR and culture (solid stars) and bats negative for G. destructans but positive for other fungi (square)
A21-1 Distribution of confirmed and suspected records of G. destructans on hibernating bats in Europe
A21-2 Photographic evidence showing bats with confirmed or suspected growth of G. destructans
A21-3 Seasonal changes of the number of live bats reported with white fungal growth in Europe
A21-4 Indirect evidence of bats grooming off G. destructans during hibernation
A21-S1 Monitoring of bats at an hibernaculum in Germany during (A) the winter 2006/2007 (September 5, 2006 until April 19, 2007) and (B) the winter 2007/2008 (August 28, 2007 until April 23, 2008)

BOXES

WO-1 The Fungal Gardens of Leafcutter Ants
WO-2 Factors in the Emergence of Infectious Diseases
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Fungal diseases have contributed to death and disability in humans, triggered global wildlife extinctions and population declines, devastated agricultural crops, and altered forest ecosystem dynamics. Despite the extensive influence of fungi on health and economic well-being, the threats posed by emerging fungal pathogens to life on Earth are often underappreciated and poorly understood. On December 14 and 15, 2010, the IOM's Forum on Microbial Threats hosted a public workshop to explore the scientific and policy dimensions associated with the causes and consequences of emerging fungal diseases.

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