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Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee (1972)

Chapter: 4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s

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Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
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Page 53
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 54
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 55
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 56
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 57
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 58
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 59
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 60
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 61
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 62
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 63
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 64
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 65
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 66
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 67
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 68
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 69
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 70
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 71
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 72
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 73
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
×
Page 74
Suggested Citation:"4. THE DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS IN THE 1970s." National Research Council. 1972. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1: Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13231.
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Page 75

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CHAPTER FOUR The Dimensions of American Astronomy and Astrophysics in the 1970's INTRODUCTION The predecessor to the present study, Ground·Bas~d Astronomy: A Ten· Year Program. was prepared in 1964 by a Panel on Astronomical Facili- ties headed by A. E. Whitford. The reader can refer to the Whitford report for statistical data for trends before 1960. The panel noted the increase in number of graduate students enrolled in astronomy departments, which, if continued, would increase the astronomy PhD population growth to 19 or 20 percent from the 4 percent annual rate that held from 1920 to 1960. This growth was partly caused by the earlier surge in astronomical novelty and interest accompanying the development of radio and space astron- omy. The manpower increase has continued to the present day at about the ra1e predicted by the Whitford report. The postwar decade had been a period of generous federal support for astronomical research, principally from the Office of Naval Research and the National Science Foundation. In 1958, these two were joined by the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration, whose expenditures for space astronomical telescopes soon exceeded earlier combined pro- grams. At about the same time, defense agencies. finding that advanced astronomical instrumentation such as radio and space telescopes were ex- cellent testing grounds for technology of potential defense interest, sup- ported advanced radio observatories, rockets, and earth-orbiting tele- scopes. Even the small fraction of such efforts devoted to basic scientific research represented a significant increase in astronomical resources. But 53

54 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR T HE 1970's as we shall see, lhese funding increases. unllkelhe manpower, have leveled off in recent years. At the time of the WbiJford report (1964), astronomy was in the midst of an unparalleled growth in people and fina n<:ial support. There was also under way a qualitative c hange in observing techniques. Until the 1940's. astronomical technology was limited to pho1ographic. simple photoelec- tric, bolomerric, and low- or high -resolution spectroscopic measures of photons in one octave of the electromagnetic spectrum. the optical "'win- dow" in the earth's atmospheric transmission. In the 1950's, radio astron- omy developed detectors and telescopes to exploit the radio "window." The technique of radio interferometry steadily increased the resolution and pointing accuracy of radio telescopes. until today they surpass optical telescopes. By 1960. telescopes above the earth's atmosphere opened new wavelength regimes as fast as detection methods eould be pressed into ser- vice. infrared observations from the ground. balloons. and airplanes revealed important new types of objects. Moreover. nonclectromagnetic astronomies were developed. Cosmic-ray physicists identified high<nergy panicle fluxes with astronomical sources like the sun and solar wind. Physicists built neutrino d etecting devices in th e dillicult attempt to measure the solar flux of neutrinos: other physicists built gravitational- wave detectors to loc.ate massive cosmic events such as supernovae ex- plosions or gravitational co11apse. Unllke manpower and funding. this increase in the range or observing techniques cannot be charted numerically on a graph. To gauge the extent of change. the reader should compnre the Whitford report's two programs in optical and radio astronomy with the diversity of programs recommended in the present study. An explosion in dramatic discoveries occu_red. The current era of new r ideas in astrophysics perhaps staned with the ground-based optical mea- surement of the extremely large red shifts of the quasan in 1963. From that time to the present has been recogn ized by many as a new golden age of astronomy. Many discoveries. including the quasars with the associated question of their natures and distances. the cosmic 6reball radiation. the pulsars or neutron stars, the complex interstellar molecules and inter- stellar masers. a nd the radar discovery that Venus r(l(ates backward. result from our a bility to view the universe in the radio pans of tbe spec- trum. But others result from observations made possible only by the open - ing of the entire electromagnetic spectrum to view, from telescopes above the atmosphere in space, with rockets, balloons, and stratospheric air- planes. These include x-ray stars. the diH'use x-ray background (that may reveal vast new amounts of invisible matter be1ween the gala.xies). infrared galaxies (whose energy o utput exceeds even the quasars), cool infrared stars (that may Include planetary systems in the process of fo rmation), and

The Dimensions of American Astronomy and Astrophysics 55 the rocket ultraviolet disco,• ety of hydrogen molecules in intersteUar space. The net elfect of such new discoveries placed an even greater load on the few large ground-based telescopes, operating through their limited window but necessary for badrup and detailed study of the physics of these strange classes of objects. The result has been to arouse the interest of nonastronomers, from lay- men to other physical scientists, to an extent unparalleled in modem times. Thus. in its report to Congress for 1970 the National Science Board commented, "the rapid pace of discovery in astronomy and astrophysics during the last few years has gjven this field an excitement unsurpassed in any other area of the physical sciences." This flood of discoveries and the high interest in astronomy and astro- physics come at a time when financial support has leveled off-as it has for almost all U.S. research and development. This combination of new discoveries at the frontier of physical science and a downtrend in real pur· chasing power of federal funding forebodes an imminent crisis in support per scientist trying to do research in astrophysics at a time when the quality. depth of education. and teehnologjcal skills .of those entering the profession are the highest that they have been. This is compounded by growth in another source of PhD researchers in astrophysics-physics de· panments. There are now about as many PhD's coming to work each year in astrophysics with a PhD physics background as with a PhD astronomy background . At the time of the Whitford report. about one quarter of the PhD researchers in astronomy had received their degree in physics. In order to put our recommendations in context, we present in graphic and tabular form. a brief statistical survey of the resources-manpower, cnpltal equipment, and financial support-now available to U.S. astrono· mers for astronomical research. For the sake of brevity, only the most essential data will be provided. Most of the numbers given are based on surveys or 6scal computations, which, while done as carefuUy as possible, are necessarily subject to some incompleteness. The reader concerned with the precision and sourc:es of these data is referred to the statistical sections and extensive appendixes to Volume 2 of this report. We believe the values of the numbers given here to be accurate in most cases to 10 percent. TRAINED MANPOWER Trends in the numbers of persons employed in astronomy are shown in Figure I. The relatively steep increase in the numbers employed during the period 1963- 1969 has leveled oft' in the last year. Not nil the employed PhD's received their doctorates in astronomy. While in 1966. 26 percent of

5(1 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR TH E 1970's :1<00 3?00 3000 >800 >800 l<CO J ~ 2200 ~_, lt: w 1800 ..; ~ 1600 ~ .. :5 1400 ~ 1200 1000 100 100 <CO 200 IQ581• 1960 1961· 196l 1963- 1964 1965- 1966 ACADEMIC YEAR 1967 1968 1- 18'10 1171- 1972 PICUR£ J Number or scienlifk and lethnical per.son.nel employed In astronomy In the Unhed StlltCJ, them had received their doctorates in physics, this increased to 45 percent in I 970, reHecting the increasing interest that physicists are showing in both theoretical and experime.ntal astronomy. The trend in the annual rate of production of new PhD's and master's in astronomy in the United States is shown in Figure 2. The-re are signs that the rate of production of graduate degrees in astronomy will level off in the next year or two. This trend is suggested by dati on the numben of graduate students in astronomy, whioh increased by S peroent per y<:ar be·

17te Dimensionr of American Astronomy tmd Astrophysics 51 tween 1969-1970 and 1970-1971 after climbing more than twice as fast during the previous nine years. Preliminary data suggest that a dec~ase of about 5 pe"'ent may occur in 1971- 1972. In the light of current concern about job opportunities for new master·s and doctoral degree holders in all the sciences, a survey of new PhD's in astronomy was carried out in the late spring of 1971:289 individuals who had received their degrees in 1966- 1970 were queried. The fraction of those who responded, who included information about their area of em 4 ployment, was 64 percent. Of these at the time oft he survey: 83"1• held jobs in astronomy. 6"1• held jobs in an astronomy-related area. 10"1. held jobs outside astronomy, 1"1• were unemployed. 1<0 X 120 0 100 w .. 0 "' ~ ~ ~ eo ~ X X "' "' ~ X 0 ~ 60 .......... PN) .. 0 "' ~ X X MASTER'S ~ " z 40 X 20 tN14 1863· , .. 19&7- ,,,,.. 11162 1864 Hl66 1i68 1SI72 ACADEMIC YEAR FIGURE 2 Number ohdn.nccd degrees awarded In uuonomy in tbe United States..

58 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPIIYSICS FOR THE 1970'• Apart from uncenainty with regard to those who did not respond. thls situation does not appear ominous. Howe'ler. the responses to the survey also indicaled 1ha1 1he 1970 PhD's had 10 work much harder 1han !heir prcdecessorsJo find positions. Carner [S<i•nu. 171. 132 (1971)) has fore· cast a dect'f:ase in the availability of new faculty position.s in all academic fields during Ihe 1970's. This is reflected in 1he results of our survey. which show Ihal whereas 80 percenl of! he 1969-1967 PhD's found jobs on cam · puses. less Ihan 40 percen1 of! he 1969-1 970 PhD's found jobs of1his lype. h seems 1ha1 employmen1 oppor1uni1ies in Jhe 1970's for holders of graduate degrees in as-tronomy will depend critically on the magnitude of federally s upported research and df!l•elopment programs in l.lstronomy during thot period.* If the present rate of astronomy PhD product ion is maintained. it would be more than s uftlticnt to meet foreseeable demand , given that a substantial frac tion of those entering the 1 >rofession obtain degrees in physics. If federal suppon is not substantially incrensc:d, then, at the present rate of PhD production. an increasing fraction of new PhD's will be obliged 10 seek employment in jobs thai are nol direclly conneCJed with astronomy. It is difficult to make policy recommendations concerning the future production of PhD's in astronomy. since the demand will depend on the leve-l or federal support of astronomy, "·hich is uncenain. There i.s a clear implication. however. that it 1A"OUld be unv.• iK to increase the praent rate or produe1ion or to increase the number or insthutions that are training graduate students in this are.a . Table t provides data on the characteristics and research in1erests of a sample ofscientific and technical personnel employed in J968. The sample is estimated to be about 90 perc-ent complete for PhD's and ~quivalems. and perhaps 75 percem complece for those with lesser trnlning or cxperi· cnec::. Table 2 includes information concerning the activities of astrono· mc:rs nt acndemic institutions. T he research interests of what we believe to be a better chon 90 percent sample of Ph 0 (or equivalent) individuals e ngaged in graduate instruction or research or bolh a re displayed in Table J. Also included is I he distribu· lion of thesis 1opics of a sample of recent PhD's. II will be noled from Table 3 Jhal a subslanlially larger percentage of •rr. fOC' tnmplc. tM maa,.ituck orsuppon tOr univcnitin i" 4oubltd by the end of the nut dtadc. appro•lma1dy 880 noew PbD'l w;wld lx ~uircd to 61 the fllt'W K'ICI~ po~idons thai woukt be Cft'a.cd ('b;asnl 01!1 our sunty. which lhou.s lUI about 1hi~ numbe-r o( f .T.E. UUD-dmt ~rr.nu PhD' s a~ now tngapd in rc:tear'('h~ Ano~hc1' 100 rniJht k MUkd 10 611 a.ntkipatcd n~ undoCflt'lldualc- teaclUg p.Miliom (bo:d on our coun1 ol about 200 F.T.E."' no- in ~~h pMhlons and andcipattd .J"'"''h in 4:'01~ n~roUtMntl. Pm\aps 150 mcm milht be Mt'dcd to t'C'placc indrrid..Ws kll5t through death and t"dlftrMnt.

Thl! Dime.nsiom of Ame.ricQn A1tronomy Qild A stroplty&lcs 59 TABLE I Characteristics of Astrooomers. 1968 (~ntific and Te<hnical ~··•» T«lll S.Mph> t.llS T.'fP4" "' £,.p~aw, ,.,.. f.ch.JC· ~t~al iMt.tut.on• Ft:dtta.l IC)ffmmcnt 8lA 222 l0-2A 25-:N 30-34 ... >18 290 Nonprofit Industry Othtt. indudtna mllltafJ >18 tiS Jt JS-39 19!1 Nc,t employed and no report 85 <0-44 tJ5 •S-<9 79 Prinl'ipul Wor4 A••tb1'1)' Bask ~SC-IU'th 610 50-5< "3 Applied rne~r<"h 12. 55-5'1 <I() Manaennent or admtnlmatiM 60-6< J8 Rtstarth and dt¥cloprntnt 102 65-69 2A ()h.. J9 ro ...... 8 TQC'hinc 213 ,.....,... • ...........,.., O.h<r <I() 5< TABLE 2 Activities of Astronomers at Academlc ln.stitutions, 1970-1971 F.,.,E. c:mploymtnt (AtO or <"quivalent) 8SJ F.T.E. c-na•atd In Jtllduatt lnstruetkm •.nd $U~rvision ortheds rNnrdt 3~ F.T.E.. C'ftllacd in rc:w:IJ'C"h othtt than thtS!s rt5urrn 43% N\lmbrr ol ~tndttttadlWt C'Otlt1itcmoDment:s in aMronomJ.- hmitvt:ioas with asttOiKJOmJ ckpln.mmts (or tht •n-.lt'tlt) $2.000

60 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR THE 1970's TAB LE 3 Research l n1ercsrs of Asrronomers. 1969-1970 T 11'< of Empl.,.., lorod<ml< NonKal'km..c F.T. E. So Empro,.d 622 Sll 'Thesis Topi<of Pt. D's lnurnu. Acad<ml< l...) ,.._at:.ocnnt .,..,. 191>7-71 ""' Cln>tood- opto<al obwrunons ofobfKU Otasack the' tol• i J'ilftft ll 7 C'irouad~ racho obwn at IIOfti ofobJ«'b ouuidc' the tiOiat 'J'.Iftn 10 a Oroood -~~- optlal and ndioobsn'watiOft,of the SOb.r S)'IICM , but cu4ud•n:c tht: ~n C.ound -baed optical • 8 l obwrnlio•" oftht '"" J 7 J C..oUMI -ba.wd radio obttr'¥alior" oft he""' l <I Spi.ct·ba\td ~ation'l oh ll lt.lnd, .ofall objreC'c.l other than the tun Spaced ~based ob:\.nva • 8 IJ • tion'l o( the sun 2 7 2 Ulboratory a.umphytk-1 6 10 2 Gc-ntral•pUfPMC' insltU· mmt devdopmcnt 10 9 5 Asa rom~ry and ttlestial morhanic-1 ~cntiC'aJ amophyli('s • 25 9 15 8 J6 Noc c-lassified eb:n.11ere J 6 6 astronomers is in ground-based observations than that involved in ob- servalions from space vehicles. This is undoubtedly due in part to the lim· ited opportuniries for making obscrvalions from space vehicles. h sbould be kept in mind. hcn>-ever.that about half of the total personnel are not di- RCtly engaged in obscmng. yet many of them are engaged in activities that support or complement activities of people making apace-based observations.

Th~ Dimensions of American Astronomy and A strophysics 61 F I NAN C IAL SU PPORT Trends in federal obligations in support of basic resun:h in astronomy are depicted in Figure 3. A large proportion of the total fiscal suppot1 for as· tronomy is funded through the National Aeronautics and Space Admin· istration INASAl. This is evidently the case because of (I) the high COSt of the instrument packages for spaceflights-these are of novel design, must be able to survive in the space emironment, and must be extraordinarily ,'......... __ . ' , ; ' '' , , ..---........ __ _ NASA' 100 ., cz: :5 .... . 8 0 NSF I NCLUDING MAJOR ) •• ·"•· ....... • 0 . . . . ., • • •· •••• • ••• "' z 0 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS . / l AS DOES NASAl / ::; .... ::1! .."'·...........................,·-·-·-·-·-·-. 10 / f I I DOD · FIGURE 3 foderal obligations ror ba.sic research in astronomy.

62 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR THE 1970's reliable since they usually cannot be repaired after they have been launched; (2) sophisticated and expensive launching and guidance devices must be provided; (3) extensive facilities for launching, telemetry, and ground-based computing and control must be built. maintained, and manned. A large number of other nonscientific personnel. as well as aero- space engineers. are supported by the HAS A funds. and the experiments have wider applications within astronomy than is indicated by the number of astronomers directly involved. The "direct" costs for some of NASA's major astronomical observing programs are shown in Figures 4 and S. In addition to the "direct" program costs shown in the two figures, it is estimated that NASA has obligated or will obligate between SIO million and SIS million annually (during fiscal years 1969-1971) on astronomical work that is part of, and budgeted through , its Lunar and Planetary Pro- gram. It is also important to note that (during fiscal years 1969-1971), out 1969 1G71 FISCAL YEAR FIGURE 4 NASA budgets for specific astronomy programs that Involve the use of llatellite observatories.

The Dimensions of American Astronomy and Astrophysics 63 16 t $20M 14 12 SOUN01NG R OC ~ETS :2 :5 10 ..J 8 ..J ..J ::; 6 lAUNCH VEHICLES • A I RPt.ANE 08SERVATORV 2 / DATA ANALYSIS 11163 1965 1967 1969 1871 FISCAl YI:AR FIGURE S NASA budaeu ror llpedflc astronomy programs that do not Involve satellite observatories. · of its general costs for vehicle tracking, data acquisition. and administra- tive costs (including the costs of operating its ruearcb centers). r<ASA esti- mates that be~n SCJO million and SIOO million annually should be ap- ponioned as the " indirect cost" of maintaining its astronomy programs. Since launches of individual observing vehicles involve very high costs and intricate scheduling problems, it is natural that NASA budgeting should identify the costs of programs that employ specific types of vehi- cles. The National Science Foundation t NSFI, however, is primarily en- gaged in the support of many-sided research programs at ground-based

64 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS I' O R T il E 1970'o ob~rvalorie:s and institutions.. Except where major new observing raciJi. ties arc to be constructed, it is more meaningful to describe NSF's tuppon programs in terms of the kind of institution to"•ard 'A'hich the programs are directed or the kinds of activity ";thin institutions for whith they are primarily intended (e.g .. education. research. capital equipment). Figure 6 prOYidcs this kind or breakdown. Virtually all thai portion or the indincl cosu 1hat is pakl by NSF is included. Where a large investment is made in • new piece or ground·based equipment. the expected usdul lire or that equipment usu:ally ranges from a few years ro many decades. This is in contrtt.st to night packages. which are usually designtd to have an operat· ing lite ronging rrom a rcw minutes to perhaps one year, a lthough some spacecraft experiments have much longer useful lifetimes. Thus invest· ments in ground -based equipment can usually be regarded I1S additions to the available capital plant. In fiscal year 1970 and fiscal year 1971 the budgets for the National As· lronomicnl Observatories were approximately as shown in Table 4. The NATIONAL ASTRONOMfCAL 08SERVATORIE$ NATIONAL ~ 08SEAVATOA IE.S 0 LESS CONSTRUCTION ~ 10 OF FACILITIES ... i •-~•~ • • -.. ~TUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT I I I I 11112 .... FISCAL YEA.R SPECIAL FACILITIES 1110 FlCUR£ 6 HSF obliptions for astronomy.

The Dimensions of American Astronomy and A strophysics 65 TABLE 4 NSF National Astronomical Observatory Budgets ($millions) Constr-UC'tion of Total Facilhies FY70 FY71 FY70 FY71 National Ast,_,.y and ~-~ C.nttt CArecibol 1.6 6.1 0 JH' Cmo Tololo lnttr·Am<ri<an Ol>fr"atOfJ 1.9 2.3 0.4 0.) Kitt Puk Notional ObK<Yotory 6.5 7.2 0.1 0.1 National Radio Nlronomy Obse:rn,tory S.9 6.9 0.7 0 aPartla1 cost of rc:surfacing the Arecibo dish. completion of previously authorized facilities is included only where new money was obligated. It should be noted that NSF Basic Research Grants are made in re· sponse to proposals submitted by individual investigators for the support of specific research programs. While some equipment may be provided under such grants, the bulk of the research done under these grants is per· formed with equipment already available to the investigator. While the NSF is a primary supporter of grouod·based astronomy, sub· stantial support is provided by other federal agencies, as shown in Table 5. Between 20 and 30 percent of the total in this table (fiscal years 1966- 1970) has been identified as ground-based radio astronomy. A good por· tion of the decrease in total support between fiscal year 1968 and fiscal year J 970 ($12.3 million) can be attributed to a S9.6 million decrease in the TABLE 5 Federal Support of Ground-Based Astronomy. Including Facilities (Smillions) FY66 FY67 FY68 FY69 FY70 FY71 FY22 Notional Sclm« F..,ndotlon 22.9 22.7 .!0.4 26.4 23.3 .JO.) 29.9 National Aeronautics and Spate Administration 9.4 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 9.0 Air Fa«< 9.6 12.1 8.5 8.0 7.) 4.0 2.0 Nny 8.7 8.6 8.2 7,4 6.7 4.0 5.0 Advan<cd Rcseorch Projeas "a<n<y 2.6 2.8 2.7 1.7 1.) 0.0 Smith10nian Astrophysical Observatory 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 TOTAL 54.7 57.7 61.3 5ro ID 47.8 47.4

66 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR 1"11 1 1970'• ' NSf bud gels fOr ron~truction for facilities ac the national ob~rv1uorics. We hll\'C endeavored to obtain estimates of1he funds chat ins1i1u1ions of higher- educa.ion in the United States receive in s-uppon of research and tducation in :a.s1ronomy. DifficuJties are encountered because (1) in some C3St"S it is not dear • -hat fraction of a general· purposc gran1 5houki be at· tributed to astronomy and how much to other fields or purposes: (2) the returns from our .sun·ey • ·ere incomplete. Particularly in view of the latte:r fact. the numhen in Table 6 are probably low. Allowance for inOation is difficuh in this context. but the pressures now feh 11t major private and state universities show that basic rese.a rch is in jeopardy because of in nation. The fisca l clinHltc is nH•rkcdly different now than when che Whitford panel formuloH.'d its ten-year program. From 1956 to 1964 the: U.S. basic research budget had been climbing 20 percent annually. It hns now s lowed co 7.4 perc.-ent (in current dollars) and significantly less. 4.5 percent. in constant dollars. E\·en with astronomy holding its own, compared with o1her sciences. there has been a se- ious decline in the support per PhD. r givtn their growth rate and transfers from other scienets. An additional pressure is the n::la1h·e decrease: in federal funds anilable outside the na- tional cen1ers. both for facilities and research, as shown in Figure 6. The ss• Basic Roseareh Grano program (largely 10 univeniti<sl has Ouctuaoed abouo a S6.S million arerage annually. in curreno dollan, not responding to either inOatkm or the increase in manpo•.nr; the facilities program is now very small. Inspection of Table 6 and Figure 6 shows that the NSF's research grants <ov<n:d only 10 percent of the suppon of asoronomical re- search at academic institutions. In the period J969-1971. foi.S F re.search and inSiitutional development grants comprised 14 percent of the total. The Oepanment of Defense ( ooo) programs are level or decreasing and oriented 1ownrd applied research. The cessation of ooo suppon of Arccibo and Hoystack has funher increased ohe load on ohe •s• budget. We li\•c inn quite c:ritkal time for the suppon of' nstronomicttl research. TABLE 6 Support for Astronomy at Academic Institutions (Smitlions) For All Pu~ l'onf<d<nl .. RttaJ Y~at f'«knl (inC'!. iadimd TCMII 1969 411 24 l9l0 41 110 .7 1'171 42 JO 72

TM Dlmtns/onJ of AmerlCDn Astro110my a11d Astrophysics 67 CAPITAl. EQUIPMENT In assembling data for this section, the Committee concentrated primarily on infonnation reganllng major te.lescopes. The buildings and taborator· ies in this country devoted to a.suonomy (other than the telescopes and as· sociated domes) have a capital value of many teM of millions of dollars. Since astronomy is also being done with space vehicles. one could ton· elude that 5C"eral millions of the dollars that have been upended on the design and construction of the Space Agency facilities represent a capital investment essential to this type of work. Ground·Ba.red Optical Telescopes Table 7 cont.ains a list of the largest U.S. optical telescopes. i.ncluding those that are under construction or for which funding seems assured. All instruments of aperture greater than 70 in. were included. The reader is referred to Volume 2 for a more complete listina. Table 8 lists the laraest U.S. solar optical telescopes. It is difficult to make precise estimates of the eosts of these telescopes in order to obtain the current cost of duplicating an instrument in the condi· tion in which it exists today. The original desip and engineering charges may be included in the lirst cost. but in other cases design. engineering, TABLE 7 Largest U.S. Optical Astronomical Telescopes Aperture A.ppnu:l m11 t Lotalkla (in .) Compi<Cioo Cotil (Smillion.s) '-'omar Mountain. Calif. lOO 1948 2Sin 1911° lOti .... k. Arb.. 158 App<O•· 1m 10 Cerro Tololo. Ch•lo 158 AJ>P"'•· I974 10 MI. H..,.iloon.Calif. 120 1959 J A. o.....Tt• 107 I~ H Las Campanas. Odc 100 App<Ox. 19"S s MI. w-. C&Hr. 100 191- lOti ....... ...,. 90 tWI 2.S ~una Ku. H.a•aU 8S 1970 •.2" lOu Pod.. Arb.. 84 19(>1 l.S R. 0•'•· Tea. &2 19.11 •Rc~.mncnt ("'Ot with modem auxiliary innrummt•tion ; initial COS1 lS.5 millkMI. ~o11t .... unw;uny hlJh because. f<M' tcchnlul ~•sou, • remote end '~~U)I·h•J"·•ItiuKl~ site •·u c:hMCn.

68 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR THE 1970't TABLE 8 Largest U.S. Solar Optical Telescopes Apenur< YurofCompl«ion Gn.) """ eo.. (Smiiiioru) Kill Pealt. Ari<. 82, 37. 33" 1962,SS Sylmar. Colif. 2A. 12" 1969.51.0 Big ll<>.r. Calif. 16, 10. 10. 9" 1969. 50.8 Sunspot. N.M. JO 1969. 54 0 SeveraJ oplical sys1ems on the same mount. and construction costs were contributed in such a way that they do not appear. Most large first-rate telescopes are steadily improved either in the structure itself or through addition of expensive auxiliary equipment, mostly from operating funds. It is not easy to know what price deOator to use when construction and improvement are extended over a number of years. Our estimates of costs of most instruments. except where noted, re- fer to the equipment as it existed at the first date of operation. The ability of an optical telescope in a good location to produce ob· servational results is proportional to the rate at which it can collect light from celestial objects. This rate is proportional to the area of its mirror. Using this simple criterion of the capability of a telescope. the combined capability of all U.S. telescopes can be measured in terms ofthe total col· lecting area of their mirrors. This total has grown over the last decade, as shown in Figure 7. In 1971 we have already exceeded the Whitford report's 1976 goals for total collecting area of optical telescopes in the 36-59-in.· and 60-99-in.- diameter ranges. However. in the most significant 100-200.in. class, we are short of the 1976 goal, even when we include the two unfinished 150-in. telescopes under construction for the national observatories and the 100· in. southern hemisphere telescope of the Carnegie Institution of Washing· ton. Two more 150-in. telescopes 07.700 sq. in. each) or one 200-in. telescope (31.400 sq. in.) are needed by 1976. even if we set no higher goal than did the Whitford panel. The available collecting area has not increased during the past decade at as great a rate as the number of active astronomers or the demand for time to observe faint objects. The projected rise in collecting area of t.he largest telescopes (with apertures greater than 99 in.) will not be achieved until197S. although all the post-1970 points shown on this curve represent instruments already funded, two of which have been under construction for a number of years. Telescopes in this class require from four to ten

The Dimension1 of American Astronomy Qm/ Astrophy&lct 69 years for design and construction once funding is assured. Planning to moec anticipated need must be tarried out at least this far in advance. While tO!al collecting area is a useful criterion, it is the largest telescopes that must be used for observing the faintest celestial objects. such as those at the most distant ~ ofthe universe. Any long· range national resean:h program in astronomy will depend moot critically on the available collect- ing area of the U.S. optical telescopes of the largest aperture. AIIO ......., / 100 200 I 10' ;;; \l..... ,"" ~ ..... >; ¥ .. w c :> \.. g 0 • ~99 indl c w .. "' c z 10' .. ti ~ ~ 0 • J6..58 inch 8 .6. Wtuttord R41P0tt t tcOtnmencUllont for 117t D ~bvlt70 I- -- ~~tOn ltiO 1020 ,,.., 1950 111010 1930 ""' FICUk£ 1 C\lrHiatrtc coUcctiac area of U.S. optbl tdQcopes al l.tii'ODOmkal intdtUliom.

70 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS FOR THE 1970's Ground-Based Radio Telescopes Table 9 contains a list ofthe largest U.S. radio telescopes. Because many parameters""' needed to define the over-all performance of such instru- ments. it is not feasible to set precise criteria for determining whether a panicular instrument should be included in this table. In general. how· ever, single steerable paraboloids of diameter less than 90ft we"' excluded (with the exception of one with an extraordinarily high surface precision). The reader is again referred to Volume 2 of the repon. where a more com- plete listing will be found. It should be pointed out that the largest. most elaborate. and best instrumented radio telescopes nrc critically important for the ultimate scientific problems of radio astronomy. Not only size but other performance criteria (surface accuracy, suitability for use in arrays, sophistication of recei,•ers) must be taken into account. The Whitford report made four imponant nocommendations for new radio facilities: (I) a pencil-beam array of one hundred 85-ft steerable pa- raboloids, (2) an array of eight 130-ft steerable dishes, (3) two very large steerable paraboloids of about 300-ft diameter, and (4) a 53 million/ year program of small and medium-size paraboloids and other instruments, including some with millimeter-wave surface accuracy. to be located at universities. It is hardly an overstatement to say that in 1972 essentially none of the Whitford program in radio astronomy had been implemented. Only the small-instrument category has shown progress, still without matching the 197 1 goals. The steerable paraboloids designed and built for centimeter-wave research since 1964 include four 60-ft dishes, six 85-ft dishes, one 120-ft dish, one 130-ft dish, and one 210-ft dish (of the Deep Space Network). Of these, only one 60-ft, one 85-ft, one 120-ft, and one 130-ft telescopes are at university departments. Other telescopes were of- ten built primarily for uses other than radio-astronomical research. For example, the 210-ft is NASA's major space communications telescope, two others are to be built for the Deep Space Network, and basic research must hold only a secondary place. In addition to the above centimeter- wa,·e telescopes. four millimeter-wa,·e dishes have been built since the Whitford "'pon. one at an Air Force research station, one at the National Observatory, one by a university, and one at a l'IASA center. or the large paraboloids, only the modest 120-ft University of Illinois telescope was planned and built since the Whitford repon. None is under construction. Space-Based Telescopes Almost all of our experience with eanh-orbiting satellite telescopes has been recent. Out of 13 astronomical missions attempted by NASA , two

The Dimensions of Amerlcon Astronomy and Astrophysics 71 have been failures (both Orbiting Astronomical Observatories). The last seven successful missions. dating back to March 1967 and inc:luding four Orbiting Solar Observatories, the Radio Astronomy Explorer, the Orbit· ing Astronomical Observatory 11. and the Small Astronomical Satellite Uhuro . are all still partially or fully operational. Table 10 contains some details. The impression that space instrumentation is eX1remely short- lived should change in the future. Other earth-orbiting experiments providing astronomical data are the Navy's series of Solar Radiation Satellites and the VELA nuclear-test-detection satellites of the Advanced Research Projects Agency. which provide sign ificant x-ray data. ln addition to satellite missions, about th~ dozen astronomy experi- ments are performed from sounding rockets each year. Most of these are NASA missions, but the Kitt Peak Space Division tNSFl, the Lawrence Ra- diation Laboratory tAECl, the Naval Research Laboratory t OODl , and the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories t OODl also build and fly sev- eral rocket astronomy experiments each year. The transparency of the atmosphere becomes sufficient at great alti· tudes to permit astronomical observations at gamma-ray and far-infrared wavelengths from stratospheric: platforms such as balloons and airplanes. About 20 balloon flights per year are devoted to astronomical research by NASA. Two small jet airplanes capable of Dying above the tropopause are available for infrared research, and a large r<ASA jet carrying a 36-in. in· frared telescope will soon be in operation. Such high altitudes allow infra- red telescopes to operate above much of the water vapor in the earth's at- mosphere. complementing projected infrared satellites and the large space telescope. In addition, the Stratosc:ope series of balloon experiments has produced extremely high-resolution photographs of astronomical objects in visible light.

.... " > ... "' ,. 0 :z: 0 a: "' > :z: "' > ... "' TABLE 9 Largest U.S. Radio Astronomical Telescopes .,.. 0 :I: l!iJhest Frequency First Date of Operation; "' - "' <"> Loc:atlon ()es('ripdon Monitored Appro;~~; . Cost Remarks ., "' Kltt Peak. Ariz. 36·ft steer able parabolokl 260GHz 1967; SIM Hiah precision; ,. 0 mounted in radome ... :I: Oark Lake. Calif. Sixteen log-periodic elements 60MHz 1968; S0.06M in 3300-m array "' - Goldstone, Calif. 210-ft steerable p.aubo~id 2JOOMHz 1966; SI2M Primary use is for communication with "' ~ 0 ~ space vehicles Q.~,os Valley, Calif. T•'O 90-ft stec-rable paraboloids IIGH.z 1958; S2M used as interferometer O..~ns Valley, Calif. IJO..ft steera.ble paraboloid 22 GHz 1966; SI.6M S.anford. Calif. Thirty-two J.ft sterrable lJOOMHz 1960; S0.6M Primarily for solar paraboloids in a cross array obser~·at ions S.anford, Calif. Fh-e 60-ft steeu.ble paraboloids 10.7 GHz Unde-r con· in linear anay structlon; <2M

Tynesboro, Mus. 120·ft steerable paraboloid 380Hz. 1967; S6.SM High precision ; (}laysra<k) mounted in radome Boulder. Colo. T"''O corner reflectors, 80MHz. 19S9; S0.2M Primarily for solar each 500 sq min area observations Dan vine, 01. 120--ft steerable paraboloid 20Hz. 1970; SO.SM Delaware, Ohio ~.ft X 70·ft fixed 2. 7OHz. 1961; S2.0M Meridian transit standing paraboloid with tiltable flat reflector rypr ~ 1963; S9M t> Arttibo. Puerto Rico IOCIO·ft fixed spherical rcfttctor 611 MHz. with movable feeds ~- Greenbank, Va. 300-ft paraboloid, mouble in SO Hz. 1962; S0.9M M a-id ian transit N- S elevation lypr ~· Greenbank. Va. 1<40-ft steerable paraboloid 24 0Hz. 196S: S13.SM ~ Greenbank. Va. Three 85-ft steerable paraboloids 80Hz. 196S; S1.4M :.. used as inte- ferometer r " 3 <>' § ..:.. a ! ..~ :.. a "' ~ ... .. ;;· ;j

-- • ~, ..• <- . . = = • 7 =- ::·- 7 • ;• - - ~ • .- , ! : < - "' - c - '$. ... ::; < 0 "' < < < f-- - 0

OSO •V J.,.. l.l. 1969 620 2$ $col, physJ.es: TM primary objcrtivc il co obcala hiah lO!O·FJb spenn1 resolution d.au (wit.hlD die J · I150-A tanJC) (rom Oft-board solar nptrimena poinccd coward the au•. 6 of 8 Uperimmts Itt" ru11y oprruiouJ. lht rtm.1iftlft1 IWO ... partillly - - O.SO·Y1 AaJ. 9, 1969 l>lll 2S Solar phJMcs: The prinwy objenm iJ to obe1in hiah CoJO-oJ< sp«enl rtsohnian d.ata hOthin the I0-2(),\,r-V and J,.. ;1 IJOO.,\ taDJtl StYul e...perimau i.Mtn.unc'nu on ~rd are fuDy optta:don&J " t:> Uluuw Dot. 12.1910 Jl6 IJ X-ny astronomy: Ptrform • ~lty Wn'q' or r&dlatlon ii' ( $.4.Sol )ir sourcn beft!.-een 0.1 and 60 A to determine posh~n. :1 ~ mengtb. sp«U"al composilion. time varl.ulon1, alld e;· rorrd.a.tlon with optical aod radio cele~i al iOUrcet:; a diiCOverecl a.n J:•ray pulsar ~ :.. 3 s. "lntllldini CCIIC o( launch Yehidc. ~ bPt,rt~Uy optralionaJ. :.. ~ ~ '"FuUy optta!lonal. ~ .. ~ :.. >: ~ ~ "" :0 (;1

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From the time of the ancient Greeks to the mid-twentieth century, the universe was conceived as of as an unchanging cosmos of fixed stars. The growth of technology, theoretical insight, and deeper understanding of the properties of matter, however, have replaced this view with a steadily expanding universe of galaxies—each galaxy a majestic, solely rotating collection of stars intertwined with dust and gases. Dramatic growth in the tools and techniques of observational astronomy have led to the discovery of explosive events, such as exploding galaxies and quasars, and an almost universal presence of high-energy particles and magnetic fields.

Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1970s: Volume 1 discusses the future of astronomy and astrophysics and recommends new programs and increased funding of moderate research. It concludes that a balanced and well-planned space-astronomy program with adequate computational facilities is essential. The goal should be one large space telescope. The book also asserts that both large national centers and strong university groups are critical for health, balance and innovation.

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