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Improving
Adult Literacy
Instruction
Options for Practice and Research
Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and
Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy
Alan M. Lesgold and Melissa Welch-Ross, Editors
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Govern-
ing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the
councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineer-
ing, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for
the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropri-
ate balance.
This study was supported by Contract No. ED-08-CO-0142 between the National
Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education. Any opinions, find-
ings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the
author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies
that provided support for the project.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations
and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy.
Improving adult literacy instruction : options for practice and research /
Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications to Adolescent
and Adult Literacy, Alan M. Lesgold and Melissa Welch-Ross, Editors, Division
of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council of
the National Academies.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-309-21959-4 (pbk.) — ISBN (invalid) 978-0-309-21960-0 (pdf) 1.
Functional literacy—United States. I. Lesgold, Alan M. II. Welch-Ross, Melissa
K. III. Title.
LC151.N385 2012
302.2’2440973—dc23
2012007109
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202)
334-3313; http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Suggested citation: National Research Council. (2012). Improving Adult Literacy
Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Committee on Learning Sciences:
Foundations and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy, A.M. Lesgold and
M. Welch-Ross, Eds. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society
of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to
the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare.
Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Acad-
emy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific
and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy
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The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter
of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding en-
gineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members,
sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the
federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineer-
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and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is presi-
dent of the National Academy of Engineering.
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Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in
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tute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sci-
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cil is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr.
Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of
the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON LEARNING SCIENCES: FOUNDATIONS AND
APPLICATIONS TO ADOLESCENT AND ADULT LITERACY
ALAN M. LESGOLD (Chair), School of Education, University of
Pittsburgh
KAREN S. COOK, Department of Sociology, Stanford University
AYDIN Y. DURGUNOĞLU, Department of Psychology, University of
Minnesota, Duluth
ARTHUR C. GRAESSER, Psychology Department, University of
Memphis
STEVE GRAHAM, Special Education and Literacy, Peabody College of
Vanderbilt University
NOEL GREGG, Regents’ Center for Learning Disorders and Psychology
Department, University of Georgia, Athens
JOYCE L. HARRIS, College of Communication, University of Texas at
Austin
GLYNDA A. HULL, Graduate School of Education, University of
California, Berkeley
MAUREEN W. LOVETT, Hospital for Sick Children and University of
Toronto
DARYL F. MELLARD, School of Education, University of Kansas
ELIZABETH B. MOJE, School of Educational Studies, University of
Michigan
KENNETH PUGH, Haskins Laboratories, New Haven
CHRIS SCHATSCHNEIDER, Department of Psychology, Florida State
University
MARK S. SEIDENBERG, Department of Psychology, University of
Wisconsin–Madison
ELIZABETH A.L. STINE-MORROW, Department of Education and
Psychology, University of Illinois
MELISSA WELCH-ROSS, Study Director
PATRICIA MORISON, Associate Executive Director, Division of
Behavioral and Social Sciences
MARY ANN KASPER, Senior Program Assistant
v
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Acknowledgments
The Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications
to Adolescent and Adult Literacy was established to review evidence on
learning and literacy to develop a roadmap for research and practice to
strengthen adult literacy education in the United States. This report is the
culmination of a 36-month study by the 15 experts from diverse disciplines
appointed to carry out this charge. First, we would like to thank the Na-
tional Institute for Literacy (NIFL) and the U.S. Department of Education
for their sponsorship of the study and for turning to the National Research
Council (NRC) for help in synthesizing the available research to improve
literacy instruction for adults and youth in the United States.
Over the course of the study, committee members and staff benefited
from discussions and presentations by individuals who brought a range of
perspectives and expertise to three fact-finding meetings. The first meeting
allowed us to gain a better understanding of the study charge and the work
before us. We heard from experts in adult literacy education to understand
adult literacy levels, the literacy needs and challenges of diverse popula-
tions, and recent large-scale adult literacy interventions. The invited experts
were Judy Alamprese, Abt Associates, Inc.; Alisa Belzer, Rutgers Univer-
sity; Daphne Greenberg, Georgia State University; Mark Kutner, American
Institutes of Research; T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research, Inc.;
Dolores Perin, Teachers College, Columbia University; and John Strucker,
World Education, Inc.
At the second meeting, the committee heard evidence about cognitive
and neural models of reading comprehension, genetic and environmental
vii
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viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
influences on reading, the neurobiology of literacy in a second language,
maturational effects on cognition and learning, the state of adult literacy
assessment, and relations between oral language and literacy. Invited par-
ticipants included Elena Grigorenko, Yale University; Arturo Hernandez,
University of Houston; Denise Park, University of Texas, Dallas; John
Sabatini, ETS; Paul van den Broek, University of Leiden and University of
Minnesota; and Gloria Waters, Boston University.
The third meeting included a diverse set of presenters who provided re-
searcher and practitioner perspectives about factors that affect persistence,
motivation, and engagement for learners from late adolescence through
adulthood and that are amenable to being influenced by instruction. Mem-
bers also sought information about the cognitive and social factors that
influence progress with literacy among English language learners. Invited
experts included John Comings, World Education, Inc.; Edward L. Deci,
University of Rochester; Ruth Kanfer, Georgia Tech; Judith Kroll, Penn-
sylvania State University; Nonie Lesaux, Harvard University; Steve Reder,
Portland State University; Dan Wagner, University of Pennsylvania; and
Heide Spruck Wrigley, Literacywork International.
Our work was also advanced by the contributions of able consultants
who wrote papers that were invaluable to our discussions and development
of report text: Eric Anderman, Ohio State University; Alisa Belzer, Rutgers
University; Mary Ellen Cushman, Michigan State University; Edward L.
Deci; Elena Grigorenko; W. Norton Grubb, University of California, Berke-
ley; Ruth Kanfer; Judith Kroll; Dolores Perin; Amy Stornaiuolo, University
of California, Berkeley; Paul van den Broek; Lalitha Vasudevan, Teach-
ers College, Columbia University; Kari L. Woods, University of Kansas;
and Heide Spruck Wrigley. Francisco Rivera-Batiz of the Department of
Economics and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, was a
member of the committee until other commitments required him to step
down in November of 2009; we thank him for the insights and expertise he
brought to the committee on issues of economics and education involving
immigrant and minority populations.
We thank Peggy McCardle and Brett Miller. who facilitated access to
the results of studies funded by the National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development and the U.S. Department of Education while the stud-
ies were in press. We also thank those who assisted committee members
with literature searches or background research, including NRC staff Julie
Shuck and Matthew von Hendy, as well as Mary Ann Kasper, who ably
arranged logistics for members and meetings and assisted with manuscript
preparation. The committee is grateful for the guidance and support of
Patricia Morison, associate executive director of the Division of Behavioral
and Social Sciences and Education (DBASSE). We thank Chris McShane,
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ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Yvonne Wise, and Eugenia Grohman of the DBASSE Office of Reports and
Communication for editing the report.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen
for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with
procedures approved by the Report Review Committee of the NRC. The
purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical com-
ments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound
as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for
objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review
comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity
of the deliberative process.
We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Patricia Alexander, College of Education, University of Maryland; Roger
Azevedo, Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, McGill
University; Virginia Berninger, College of Education, University of Wash-
ington; Larry Condelli, American Institutes for Research; Laurie E. Cutting,
Departments of Special Education and Psychology, Radiology, and Pedi-
atrics, Vanderbilt University Kennedy Center; Morton Ann Gernsbacher,
University of Wisconsin–Madison; Susan R. Goldman, Department of
Psychology and Education, University of Illinois at Chicago; Maryalice
Jordan-Marsh, School of Social Work, University of Southern California;
Susan Kemper, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas; Richard E.
Mayer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara;
Larry J. Mikulecky, Department of Education, Indiana University; Timothy
Shanahan, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Illi-
nois at Chicago; Catherine Snow, Harvard Graduate School of Education,
Harvard University; Sharon Vaughn, Department of Human Develop-
ment, College of Education, University of Texas at Austin; Dan Wagner,
Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania; and Christina
Zarcadoolas, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health Lit-
eracy, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by Paul R. Sackett, Depart-
ment of Psychology, University of Minnesota, and Johanna T. Dwyer, Tufts
University School of Medicine and Friedman School of Nutrition Science
and Policy and Frances Stern Nutrition Center, Tufts Medical Center, and
Jean Mayer Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts Univer-
sity. Appointed by the NRC, they were responsible for making certain that
an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance
with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully
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x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely
with the authoring committee and the institution.
Alan M. Lesgold, Chair
Melissa Welch-Ross, Study Director
Committee on Learning Sciences:
Foundations and Applications to
Adolescent and Adult Literacy
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Contents
Summary 1
Recommendations, 5
1 Introduction 8
Literacy in the United States, 8
Study Charge, Scope, and Approach, 15
Conceptual Framework and Approach to the Review of
Evidence, 15
Study Scope, 19
Organization of the Report, 21
2 Foundations of Reading and Writing 24
Social, Cultural, and Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Literacy
Development, 25
Types of Text, 26
Literacy Tools, 27
Literacy Activities, 28
Teacher Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs, 29
Neurocognitive Mechanisms, 30
Reading, 31
Decoding, 34
Vocabulary, 35
Fluency, 37
Reading Comprehension, 39
xi
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xii CONTENTS
Writing, 45
Components and Processes of Writing, 46
Writing Instruction, 50
Neurobiology of Reading and Writing Development and
Difficulties, 54
Neurobiology of Reading, 54
Neurobiology of Writing, 55
Implications for Instruction, 56
Instruction for Struggling Readers and Writers, 57
Decontextualized Interventions, 57
Principles of Instruction for Struggling Learners, 58
Reading and Writing Across the Life Span, 64
Summary and Discussion, 67
3 Literacy Instruction for Adults 70
Contexts for Literacy Learning, 71
Adult Education Programs, 71
Literacy Instruction in Adult Education Programs, 77
Developmental Education Courses in Colleges, 81
Instructional Practices and Outcomes: State of the Research, 84
Assumptions and Sources of Evidence, 84
Orientation to the Findings, 86
Adults in Basic and Secondary Education Programs, 86
Topics for Future Study from Adult Literacy Research, 92
Collaborative Learning, 92
Contextualized Instruction, 93
Instructional Materials, 94
Writing Instruction, 95
Funds of Knowledge and Authentic Learning Experiences, 96
Social, Psychological, and Functional Outcomes, 96
Underprepared Postsecondary Students, 97
Summary and Directions for Research, 99
4 Principles of Learning for Instructional Design 106
The Development of Expertise, 107
Supporting Attention, Retention, and Transfer, 109
Present Material in a Clear and Organized Format, 109
Use Multiple and Varied Examples, 110
Present Material in Multiple Modalities and Formats, 110
Teach in the Zone of Proximal Development, 111
Space Presentations of New Material, 113
Test on Multiple Occasions, Preferably with Spacing, 113
Ground Concepts in Perceptual-Motor Experiences, 113
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xiii
CONTENTS
Supporting Generation of Content and Reasoning, 115
Encourage the Learner to Generate Content, 115
Encourage the Generation of Explanations, Substantive
Questions, and the Resolution of Contradictions, 116
Encourage the Learner to Construct Ideas from Multiple Points of
View and Different Perspectives, 117
Complex Strategies, Critical Thinking, Inquiry, and Self-Regulated
Learning, 118
Structure Instruction to Develop Effective Use of Complex
Strategies, 118
Combine Complex Strategy Instruction with Learning of
Content, 120
Feedback, 121
Accurate and Timely Feedback Helps Learning, 121
Qualitative Feedback Is Better for Learning Than Test Scores
and Error Flagging, 122
Adaptive and Interactive Learning Environments, 123
Adaptive Learning Environments Foster Understanding in
Complex Domains, 123
Interactive Learning Environments Facilitate Learning, 124
Learning Is Facilitated in Genuine and Coherent Learning
Environments, 125
Learning Is Influenced by Motivation and Emotion, 125
Summary and Directions for Research, 126
5 Motivation, Engagement, and Persistence 130
The Psychology of Motivation and Learning, 131
Self-Efficacy, 134
Intrinsic Motivation, 143
Social, Contextual, and Systemic Mediators of Persistence, 151
Formal School Structures and Persistence, 151
Cultural and Linguistic Differences, 152
Social Relationships and Interactions, 153
Potentially Negative Effects of Stereotype, 155
Social and Systemic Supports for and Barriers to Persistence, 156
Directions for Research, 158
6 Technology to Promote Adult Literacy 162
Classes of Technologies for Learning, 165
How Technologies Affect Learning, 166
Digital Tools for Practicing Skills, 169
Summary and Directions for Research, 177
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xiv CONTENTS
7 Learning, Reading, and Writing Disabilities 179
Learning Disabilities, 180
Reading Disabilities, 182
Writing Disabilities, 187
Developing Brain Systems in Struggling Readers, 192
Brain Structure and Function, 193
Brain Plasticity, 196
Accommodations to Support Literacy Learning, 198
Reading Accommodations, 199
Writing Accommodations, 201
Summary and Directions for Research, 203
8 Language and Literacy Development of English Language
Learners 206
Component Literacy Skills of English Language Learners, 209
Influences on Language and Literacy in a Second Language, 210
First Language Knowledge and Education Level, 210
English Language Proficiency, 214
Age, 216
Aptitude for a Second Language, 217
Reading and Learning Disabilities, 218
Cultural Knowledge and Background, 218
Approaches to Second Language Literacy Instruction, 220
Integration of Explicit Instruction and Implicit Learning of
Language and Literacy, 221
Development of Language and Knowledge for Learning and
Reading Comprehension, 225
Access to Language and Literacy Practice Outside
Classrooms, 227
Leveraging Knowledge in the First Language, When
Available, 227
Integrated Multimodal Instruction, 228
Writing, 228
Affective Aspects of Learning and Instruction, 230
Assessment, 230
Summary and Directions for Research, 233
9 Conclusions and Recommendations 236
Conclusions, 238
Adult Learners and Learning Environments, 238
Principles of Effective Literacy Instruction, 240
English Language Learners, 244
Assessment, 246
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xv
CONTENTS
Technology, 248
Adult Literacy Instruction: State of the Evidence, 250
Recommendations, 251
Research Design, 254
Priorities for Basic and Applied Research, 255
Priorities for Translational Science, 256
Large-Scale Data Collection and Information Gathering, 259
Concluding Thoughts: Leadership and Partnership, 259
References and Bibliography 263
Appendixes
A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Staff 385
B Literacy in a Digital Age 392
Adult Literacy Practices and Proficiencies, 394
Adults’ Engagement with Information and Communication
Technologies, 397
Instructional Practices and Learning Environments, 399
Future Research, 401
References, 401
C Interventions to Develop the Component Literacy Skills of
Low-Literate Adults 407
A. Study Populations and Sample Characteristics, 408
B. Intervention Practices, Intensity, Duration, and Attrition
Rates, 410
C. Study Instruments by Measurement Construct by Study, 412
References, 416
D Search Procedures and Reviewed Studies of Adult Literacy
Instruction* 417
*Appendix D is not printed in this volume but is available online. Go to http://www.nap.
edu/catalog.php?record_id=13242.
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