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Committee on Benchmarking the Technology and Application of Lightweighting
National Materials and Manufacturing Board
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council,
whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and
the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences
and with regard for appropriate balance.
This is a report of work supported by Contract No. W911NF-08-D-0005, DO# 2, between the Department of Defense and the
National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those
of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-22166-5
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-22166-8
Limited copies are available from Additional copies are available from
Division on Engineering and Physical The National Academies Press
Sciences 500 Fifth Street, NW
National Research Council Keck 360
500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
Washington, DC 20001 800-624-6242 or 202-334-3313
202-334-3111 http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in
scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general
welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to
advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy
of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a
parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, shar-
ing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of
Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and rec -
ognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent
members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts
under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal
government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg
is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad com -
munity of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government.
Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating
agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the gov -
ernment, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies
and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the
National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON BENCHMARKING THE TECHNOLOGY
AND APPLICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHTING
L. CATHERINE BRINSON, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, Chair
JOHN ALLISON, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
JULIE CHEN, University of Massachusetts, Lowell
DAVID R. CLARKE, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
BRADFORD COWLES, Pratt & Whitney (retired), Tolland, Connecticut
GEORGE T. (“RUSTY”) GRAY III, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico
ERIC GREENE, Eric Greene Associates, Annapolis, Maryland
WESLEY L. HARRIS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MANISH MEHTA, National Center for Manufacturing Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan
GREGORY B. OLSON, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
CHARLES SAFF, The Boeing Company, St. Louis, Missouri
DARREL R. TENNEY, NASA Langley Research Center (retired), Hampton, Virginia
FRANCIS W. ZOK, University of California, Santa Barbara
Staff
MADELINE WOODRUFF, Study Director
DENNIS CHAMOT, Acting Director, National Materials and Manufacturing Board
RICKY D. WASHINGTON, Administrative Coordinator
LAURA TOTH, Senior Program Assistant
HEATHER LOZOWSKI, Financial Associate
v
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NATIONAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING BOARD
ROBERT H. LATIFF, R. Latiff Associates, Alexandria, Virginia, Chair
DENISE F. SWINK, Independent Consultant, Germantown, Maryland, Vice Chair
PETER R. BRIDENBAUGH, NAE, ALCOA (retired), Boca Raton, Florida
VALERIE M. BROWNING, ValTech Solutions, LLC, Port Tobacco, Maryland
YET-MING CHIANG, NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
PAUL CITRON, NAE, Medtronic, Inc. (retired), Minnetonka, Minnesota
GEORGE T. (RUSTY) GRAY II, Los Alamos National Laboratories, Los Alamos, New Mexico
CAROL A. HANDWERKER, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
THOMAS S. HARTWICK, Independent Consultant, Snohomish, Washington
SUNDARESAN JAYARAMAN, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
DAVID W. JOHNSON, JR., NAE, Stevens Institute of Technology, Bedminster, New Jersey
THOMAS KING, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
MICHAEL F. McGRATH, Analytic Services, Inc., Arlington, Virginia
NABIL NASR, Golisano Institute for Sustainability, Rochester, New York
PAUL S. PEERCY, NAE, University of Wisconsin-Madison
ROBERT C. PFAHL, JR., International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative, Herndon, Virginia
VINCENT J. RUSSO, Aerospace Technologies Associates, LLC, Dayton, Ohio
ROBERT E. SCHAFRIK, GE Aviation, Cincinnati, Ohio
KENNETH H. SANDHAGE, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
HAYDN WADLEY, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
STEVEN WAX, Independent Consultant, Reston, Virginia
Staff
DENNIS CHAMOT, Acting Director
ERIK B. SVEDBERG, Senior Program Officer
RICKY D. WASHINGTON, Executive Assistant
HEATHER LOZOWSKI, Financial Associate
LAURA TOTH, Program Assistant
vi
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Preface
Lightweighting is a concept well known to structural designers and engineers in applications from laptops to
bicycles to automobiles to buildings and airplanes. Reducing the weight of structures can provide many advantages,
including increased energy efficiency, better design, improved usability, and better coupling with new, multifunc -
tional features. At the same time, the methods needed to achieve implementation of lightweighting are not well
understood. And although lightweighting is a challenge in commercial structures, the special demands of military
vehicles significantly stress the already complex process.
It is in this context that the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), through Reliance 21, 1 requested that the
National Research Council (NRC) conduct a study, under the auspices of the National Materials and Manufacturing
Board, to assess the current state of lightweighting implementation in air, sea, and land vehicles and recommend
ways to improve the use of lightweight materials and lightweighting solutions. Appointed by the NRC, the Com -
mittee on Benchmarking the Technology and Application of Lightweighting comprised members chosen for their
expertise in materials (including ceramics, polymers, metals, and composites); use of materials in air, sea, and land
transport vehicles; systems engineering; and technology assessment, economics, and transfer. Short biographies
of the committee members are provided in Appendix A. The committee’s statement of task is given in Chapter 1,
along with the committee’s interpretation of its task and a description of how it carried out its work.
The committee’s work was aided greatly by a number of people, including the DoD’s Reliance 21 Materi -
als and Processing Team and the experts who took the time to speak to the committee: Bruno Barthelemy, Gene
Camponeschi, Julie Christodoulou, John Deloach, Lisa Prokurat Franks, John Gill, Roger Halle, Robert Hathaway,
Charles Kuehmann, James Malas, Suveen Mathaudhu, Mark Middione, Jim Ogonowski, Robert Rapson, and Robert
Sielski. Appendix B lists the presentations made to the committee.
My personal thanks go to the entire complement of committee members for their outstanding expertise, lim -
itless enthusiasm, and dedicated efforts in discussing the vast amount of information on lightweighting that we
received and in writing the report. I am particularly grateful to Frank Zok and Brad Cowles for their exceptional
dedication and vision at key points in the process. They served as unofficial committee co-chairs, providing leader-
ship to see the report through to the final version. We are all grateful to Madeline Woodruff, a senior program officer
in the NRC’s Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences, who served tirelessly as study director and assisted
1 Reliance 21 is a management process developed by the Director of Defense Research and Engineering (DDR&E) that involves the science
and technology (S&T) executives of all the military components under the aegis of the DDR&E. All the DoD and military service S&T
organizations prepare biennial S&T strategic plans that are informed by and harmonized with an overarching DoD S&T strategic plan.
vii
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viii PREFACE
the committee in the preparation of its report under the direction of Dennis Chamot, acting director, National Mate -
rials and Manufacturing Board. The study benefited greatly from the work and advice of Janice Mehler, associate
executive director, Report Review Committee. Special appreciation is expressed to Daniel Talmage, who helped
with the preparation of the report during the final stage of the project, and to Laura Toth and Ricky D. Washington
for assistance with meeting arrangements and communications with the committee.
L. Catherine Brinson, Chair
Committee on Benchmarking the Technology
and Application of Lightweighting
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Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical
expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee.
The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution
in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for
objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain
confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
Thanks go to the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
William F. Baker (NAE), Skidmore, Owings & Merrill,
Jay Baron, Center for Automotive Research,
Charles N. Calvano, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School,
W. Peter Cherry (NAE), Independent Consultant,
Donald U. Gubser, Naval Research Laboratory,
Elizabeth A. Holm, Sandia National Laboratories,
Paul J. Kern (NAE), The Cohen Group,
Richard R. Paul, Independent Consultant,
Richard L. Rumpf, Rumpf Associates International, Inc.,
Mark Schaeffer, Mantech SRS,
Robert E. Schafrik, GE Aircraft Engines,
Haydn Wadley, University of Virginia, and
Ben Wang, Florida State University.
Although these reviewers provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to
endorse the committee’s findings or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review was overseen by R. Steven Berry, University of Chicago. Appointed by the National Research
Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in
accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility
for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and institution.
ix
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 7
1.1 Lightweighting: Background, 7
1.2 Study Charge and Scope, 9
1.3 Committee’s Approach and Report Outline, 10
1.4 Defining Lightweighting, 12
1.5 Key Topics in Lightweighting, 14
1.6 Challenges and Opportunities: Findings of Recent Studies, 19
1.7 Concluding Remarks, 28
2 LIGHTWEIGHTING AIRBORNE VEHICLES 29
2.1 Current State of Lightweighting Implementation and Metrics, 29
2.2 Barriers and Keys to Success, 33
2.3 Lightweighting Opportunities for Aircraft, 38
2.4 Long-Term Challenges in Lightweighting Aircraft, 46
2.5 Examples of Lightweighting in Airborne Vehicles, 49
2.6 Conclusions, 60
3 LIGHTWEIGHTING MARITIME VEHICLES 61
3.1 Current State of Lightweighting Implementation and Metrics, 61
3.2 Barriers and Keys to Success for Use of Selected Materials, 65
3.3 Lightweighting Opportunities for Maritime Vehicles, 69
3.4 Long-Term Concerns in Lightweighting Maritime Vehicles, 72
3.5 Examples of Lightweighting in Maritime Vehicles, 74
3.6 Conclusions, 83
xi
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xii CONTENTS
4 LIGHTWEIGHTING LAND-BASED VEHICLES 85
4.1 Current State of Lightweighting Implementation and Metrics, 85
4.2 Barriers and Keys to Success, 88
4.3 Lightweighting Opportunities for Land-Based Vehicles, 91
4.4 Long-Term Concerns in Lightweighting Land-Based Vehicles, 93
4.5 Examples of Lightweighting in Land-Based Vehicles, 94
4.6 Conclusions, 102
5 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES AND CHALLENGES 103
5.1 Different Priorities, Similar Challenges, 103
5.2 Systems Engineering Design, 106
5.3 Insertion of Lightweighting Materials and Technologies, 109
5.4 Transition of Lightweighting Technologies into Fielded Systems, 120
5.5 Manufacturing and Maintenance Technologies That Facilitate Lightweighting, 122
5.6 Availability of Lightweighting Materials, 123
5.7 Conclusion, 127
6 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 128
6.1 Defining Lightweighting, 128
6.2 Digital Design Tools for Systems Engineering, 129
6.3 Transition of Lightweighting Technology via Advanced Technology Demonstration Programs, 133
6.4 A DoD-Wide Initiative on Affordable Manufacturing Technology to Facilitate Lightweighting, 134
6.5 A Strategic Vision for Materials Critical to Lightweighting, 134
6.6 Conclusion, 136
APPENDIXES
A Committee Biographies 139
B Presentations to the Committee 144
C Acronyms and Abbreviations 146
