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11
Research Needs
This report has examined key challenges and op- 1. Health, social, and environmental issues
portunities for water reuse as an approach to meet the 2. Performance and quality assurance
nation’s future water needs, and research will be needed
to address many of the challenges ahead. In this chap- The topics are identified in Box 11-1 and are described
ter, the committee identifies key research needs that in more detail in this chapter. The issues are not listed
are not currently being addressed in a major way. These in order of priority.
research areas hold significant potential to advance
the safe, reliable, and cost-effective reuse of municipal Human Health, Social, and Environmental Issues
wastewater where traditional sources are inadequate.
This chapter also includes a discussion of the current
1. Quantify the extent of de facto (or unplanned) potable
roles of federal agencies and nongovernmental organi-
reuse in the United States.
zations (NGOs) in supporting reuse-related research,
because these same entities could play a role in support- Although population density has increased sub-
ing the committee-identified research needs. stantially in parts of the country with limited water
resources, a systematic analysis of the contribution of
municipal wastewater effluent to potable water supplies
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
has not been made in the United States for over 30
In the committee’s review of a wide range of issues years. The lack of such data impedes efforts to identify
affecting the application of nonpotable and potable the significance and potential health impacts of de facto
reuse, the committee did not identify any technologi- water reuse. Because new water reuse projects could
cal hurdles that were holding back the application of decrease the volume of wastewater discharged to water
reuse to address local water supply needs. In fact, in its sources where de facto reuse is being practiced, the lack
review of water reclamation technologies (see Chapter of understanding of the contribution of wastewater ef-
4), the committee found the state of technology to be fluent to water supplies restricts our ability to assess the
quite advanced, with room for improvements but no net impact of future water reuse on the nation’s water
major limitations to their use. However, additional resource portfolio. Available hydrological modeling and
research could enhance the performance and quality monitoring tools would enable an accurate assessment
assurance of existing processes and help address public of de facto water reuse. Ideally, these efforts would take
concerns over the safety of reuse to human health and advantage of existing monitoring networks (e.g., U.S.
the environment. Geological Survey [USGS] streamflow gauging sta-
Overall, the committee organized the proposed tions), data on wastewater effluent discharges submit-
14 priority research areas within two broad categories: ted by National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys-
193
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194 WATER REUSE
tem permit holders, and hydrological models developed
BOX 11-1 to study watersheds with historical concerns about the
Summary of Research Priorities impact of effluent discharges on water quality. These
efforts could be updated periodically (e.g., every 5 to 10
These research areas hold significant potential to advance
years) to provide decision makers with an understand-
the safe, reliable, and cost-effective reuse of municipal waste-
ing of the role of de facto reuse in the nation’s potable
water where traditional sources are inadequate. They are not
water supply. Furthermore, an improved understanding
prioritized here.
of de facto potable reuse could spur the development
Health, Social, and Environmental Issues and/or application of contaminant prediction tools
or lead to enhanced monitoring programs that could
1. Quantify the extent of de facto (or unplanned) potable
increase public health protection.
reuse in the United States.
2. Address critical gaps in the understanding of health
impacts of human exposure to constituents in reclaimed water.
2. Address critical gaps in the understanding of health
3. Enhance methods for assessing the human health
impacts of human exposure to constituents in reclaimed
effects of chemical mixtures and unknowns.
4. Strengthen waterborne disease surveillance, investi- water.
gation methods, governmental response infrastructure, and
Potential health impacts resulting from long-term,
epidemiological research tools and capacity.
5. Assess the potential impacts of environmental applica- low-level exposure to chemicals and mixtures of chemi-
tions of reclaimed water in sensitive ecological communities.
cals present in wastewater effluent have yet to be fully
6. Quantify the nonmonetized costs and benefits of
elucidated. It would be expensive and time-consuming
potable and nonpotable water reuse compared with other
to conduct batteries of in vitro and in vivo toxicity stud-
water supply sources to enhance water management decision
ies on all of the different chemicals in reclaimed water.
making.
However, a carefully planned research effort would be
7. Examine the public acceptability of engineered mul-
tiple barriers compared with environmental buffers for potable useful to inform future decisions about potable water
reuse.
reuse. In particular, there is a need to fill in data gaps
in existing toxicological databases with respect to con-
Treatment Efficiency and Quality Assurance
taminants that are known to occur in wastewater and
8. Develop a better understanding of contaminant attenu-
persist in the environment and are refractory in water
ation in environmental buffers.
reclamation and water treatment processes. The risk
9. Develop a better understanding of the formation of
exemplar (Chapter 7) highlights several of these chemi-
hazardous transformation products during water treatment for
cals, including nitrosamines, disinfection byproducts,
reuse and ways to minimize or remove them.
hormones, certain pharmaceuticals, antimicrobials,
10. Develop a better understanding of pathogen removal
efficiencies and the variability of performance in various unit flame retardants, and perfluorochemicals. As noted in
processes and multibarrier treatment and develop ways to
Chapter 6, there is also a need to assess the importance
optimize these processes.
of indirect pathways of exposure to constituents in re-
11. Quantify the relationships between polymerase chain
claimed water, such as bioaccumulation of trace organic
reaction (PCR) detections and viable organisms in samples
chemicals in food crops.
at intermediate and final stages.
12. Develop improved techniques and data to consider
hazardous events or system failures in risk assessment of
3. Enhance methods for assessing the human health effects
water reuse.
of chemical mixtures and unknowns.
13. Identify better indicators and surrogates that can be
used to monitor process performance in reuse scenarios and
Concerns about the health effects of unknown
develop online real-time or near real-time analytical monitor-
chemicals and contaminant mixtures remain a major
ing techniques for their measurement.
challenge in public and political acceptance of water
14. Analyze the need for new reuse approaches and tech-
nology in future water management. reuse. Additional research is needed to further develop
in vivo and in vitro bioassay methods that can be used
to rapidly and selectively screen the product water from
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195
RESEARCH NEEDS
water reclamation facilities for possible physiological although few have focused solely on purposeful restora-
effects. Improved rapid bioassays could also help in the tion projects. The location and site-specific attributes
prioritization of those chemicals, or chemical mixtures, associated with the restoration project will determine
which may necessitate longer term in vivo testing. the extent of the research needs, but only through
several site-specific analyses can the range of potential
issues be fully understood. Conventional (e.g., whole
4. Strengthen waterborne disease surveillance,
effluent toxicity) testing and risk paradigms are avail-
investigation methods, governmental response
able, but a need exists to further develop rapid screening
infrastructure, and epidemiological research tools and
methodologies. Research related to purposeful ecologi-
capacity.
cal enhancement with reclaimed water might lead to
Despite the frequency of acute gastrointestinal more successful habitat restoration projects.
infections (AGIs) worldwide and in the United States
and public concern over chemical contamination of 6. Quantify the nonmonetized costs and benefits of
public and private water supplies, the ability of the potable and nonpotable water reuse compared with other
public health sector and the research community to water supply sources to enhance water management
attribute disease to water consumption remains prob- decision making.
lematic. Attributing waterborne disease outbreaks to
a source or treatment practice will only become more When making major water management decisions
difficult with the growing complexity of drinking and weighing various competing water supply alterna-
water sources, including reclaimed water. There is no tives, communities and decision makers must evalu-
national public health epidemiological research pro- ate many factors (e.g., life-cycle costs, environmental
gram dedicated to tracking endemic water-associated costs and benefits, public acceptance, supply reliability,
AGI community disease trends or comparative health water system independence) in addition to traditional
impacts of differing water reuse patterns. There is little financial costs. However, a full understanding of these
public health response capacity until disease reaches costs and benefits is rarely available. Quantification of
epidemic outbreak status, when generic public health environmental costs and benefits, for example, should
outbreak investigation resources become available. As include impacts on surface water flows and ecosystems,
water reuse increases in scope and volume, methods and nutrients, and greenhouse gas emissions. Although
expertise to determine whether AGIs are waterborne these costs and benefits are inherently site specific, a
or whether community chronic health disparities are synthesis of such analyses across a number of facilities
related to water reuse will be important to maintaining and conditions could inform broader discussions of
public acceptance of reuse practices and should be the water management alternatives. Additionally, an evalu-
focus of research partnerships. Disease and exposure ation of existing tools that planners and water managers
surveillance tools, investigation practices, and human could use to integrate these various costs and benefits
health outcomes research need to be improved and into overall project analysis would help support and
strengthened. better inform water management decisions.
5. Assess the potential impacts of environmental 7. Examine the public acceptability of engineered multiple
applications of reclaimed water in sensitive ecological barriers compared with environmental buffers for potable
communities. reuse.
Reclaimed water has many potential uses for habi- As described previously in this report, environmen-
tat restoration, but a need exists to better understand tal buffers have been an important aspect of almost all
the impact of wastewater-derived contaminants in successful potable reuse projects because of particular
purposeful ecological enhancement projects. Many sci- functions they serve toward contaminant attenuation,
entific studies of surface water impacts associated with retention, and/or blending (see Chapter 5) and be-
municipal effluent discharges have been undertaken, cause some buffers (e.g., groundwater injection) serve
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196 WATER REUSE
to disassociate reclaimed water from its source in the enhancing the safety of water reuse scenarios, including
minds of the public (see Chapter 10). However, from de facto reuse.
a technical perspective, the public health protection
that natural systems provide is often not well defined. 10. Develop a better understanding of pathogen removal
Recent research has shown that engineered barriers efficiencies and the variability of performance in various
can provide equivalent or superior levels of protection unit processes and multibarrier treatment and develop
compared with some environmental buffers currently ways to optimize these processes.
in use. Research is needed to understand the public
acceptability of engineered buffers compared with en- Because health effects can result from a single ex-
vironmental buffers used for potable reuse. posure to a pathogen, the variability in pathogen occur-
rence and removal during wastewater reclamation and
distribution processes should be better understood to
Treatment Efficiency and Quality Assurance
capture the overall variability in exposure and risk. Data
developed from careful monitoring across processes in
8. Develop a better understanding of contaminant
full-scale installations and showing the variations in
attenuation in environmental buffers.
pathogen densities over time would serve as an impor-
tant database for project design. Because low levels of
Research on how well different environmental buf-
pathogens remain toward the end of treatment, indica-
fers function under various conditions, their potential
tor organism monitoring may be needed to assess the
weaknesses, and their impacts on water quality is crucial
variability in pathogen removal. Research is needed to
to the optimization of potable reuse systems and future
better understand how changes in process design and
decisions about their design. Some researchers have
operation affect the removal of pathogens (and indica-
examined the performance of soil aquifer treatment
tors) to develop more efficient ways to reduce risks from
systems in the southwestern United States, but the
microorganisms in treatment systems.
performance of such systems under other hydrogeo-
logical conditions is poorly understood. Information
on contaminant attenuation in wetlands, rivers, and 11. Quantify the relationships between polymerase chain
reservoirs is also lacking. reaction detections and infectious organisms in samples at
intermediate and final stages.
9. Develop a better understanding of the formation
With the increasing use of molecular biological
of hazardous transformation products during water
methods such as quantitative polymerase chain reaction
treatment for reuse and ways to minimize or remove
(qPCR) for pathogen enumeration in environmental
them.
samples, occurrence data are being obtained in terms
of genome copies per unit water volume (e.g., gc/L).
As described in Chapter 3, wastewater contains a
However, for risk assessment, dose-response relation-
rich mixture of organic constituents, and during dis-
ships are generally based on number of viable pathogens
infection and other treatment processes, some hazard-
(e.g., colony-forming units, plaque-forming units) in a
ous transformation products are formed. Continued
dose. The percentage of genome copies that represent
research is needed to understand the precursors of
viable (or infectious) units is likely to degrade during
hazardous transformation products and how precursor
treatment and exposure to the environment, especially
chemicals can be better managed to reduce the forma-
during exposure to oxidizing disinfectants. Therefore,
tion of hazardous chemicals. N-Nitrosodimethylamine
to use qPCR data with more confidence in risk assess-
(NDMA) is a particularly challenging disinfection by-
ments of pathogens and in the control of advanced
product that merits additional research, because it poses
treatment systems, reliable data on the ratio and vari-
a risk for cancer at very low concentrations (0.7 ng/L)
ability in the ratio of genome copies/viable pathogens
and potable reuse projects frequently require expensive
are needed for various types of waters (e.g., source,
and energy-intensive additional treatment to remove it.
partially treated, completely treated). Alternatively,
Research on transformation products is important for
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RESEARCH NEEDS
another means is needed for quantifying infectious microorganisms, could reduce the post-treatment stor-
pathogens that cannot be grown in conventional media. age capacity needed to ensure quality in potable reuse
projects and could reduce the extent of contamination
and potentially the exposure duration in the event of
12. Develop improved techniques and data to consider
process failures.
hazardous events or system failures in risk assessment of
water reuse.
14. Analyze the need for new reuse approaches and
The committee developed its risk exemplar to technology in future water management.
compare the relative risks of conventional and a de
facto water reuse scenarios (see Chapter 7), but this A review of the history of wastewater management
analysis did not consider the impacts of hazardous in the United States (see Chapter 2) reveals that water
events (e.g., earthquakes, hurricanes, disease outbreaks) reuse began as a strategy to dispose of large volumes of
or major equipment failures. Ideally, risk assessments liquid waste generated in densely populated areas. More
would address these factors and include techniques recently, reuse also has evolved to address local water
for quantitative analysis of both the likelihood and demands, but largely working within the framework
consequences of specific hazardous events in order to of an existing wastewater infrastructure designed in
quantify the risks. However, the data to support such an the early to mid-20th century. These existing waste-
analysis are not widely available. Improved techniques water infrastructure designs constrain water reuse in a
and data could also facilitate increased incorporation of number of ways. The strategy of draining wastewater
quality assurance strategies into treatment plant design from urban areas by gravity and managing water qual-
and operation (see Chapter 5). Additionally, the level ity at the point of discharge to a receiving stream has
of quality assurance necessary for public health protec- favored the establishment of large centralized waste-
tion needs to be better defined so that potable reuse water treatment plants. The location of these treatment
systems can be designed to provide it, with or without plants limits the options for water reuse because large
environmental buffers. dedicated conveyance systems are costly and difficult to
implement in existing urban settings, particularly when
potential users are not located close to water reclama-
13. Identify better indicators and surrogates that can be
tion facilities. An additional constraint on reuse is that
used to monitor process performance in reuse scenarios and
only one quality of effluent is typically produced from
develop online real-time or near real-time monitoring
wastewater treatment plants, even though potential
techniques for their measurement.
users may have widely ranging quality requirements.
It remains impractical to use direct measurements Considering existing treatment train designs and site
of most contaminants to assess actual performance of constraints, many of these existing wastewater treat-
individual processes and process sequences. Therefore, ment plants are not easily adaptable to the production
development and application of surrogate and/or in- of high-quality reclaimed water for reuse. Meanwhile,
dicator measurements (see Chapter 5) are needed that core elements of the infrastructure that embeds both
could be used to assess the performance of individual water and wastewater treatment, storage, and convey-
water reclamation processes. Indicators are individual ance were developed and designed during a time of in-
chemicals or microorganisms that represent the char- expensive energy, smaller urban populations, and little
acteristics of other trace organic contaminants or appreciation of the need for aquatic habitat protection
microorganisms of concern, particularly their removal and control of greenhouse gas emissions (Daigger,
through the specific process(es) where they are mea- 2009). The interdependency of water and energy has
sured. A surrogate is a quantifiable change of a bulk been mostly neglected, and the existing water infra-
parameter that can be continuously monitored and that structure is rather energy intensive (e.g., water con-
correlates with contaminant removal. Development veyance systems, need for pumping, energy-intensive
of real-time or near-real time monitoring techniques, treatment processes).
particularly for contaminants with acute effects, such as Many of these water and wastewater systems are
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198 WATER REUSE
now reaching the end of their design life, and EPA has decades to come, while contributing to efficient use of
estimated that between $320 billion and $450 billion water and energy resources.
will need to be invested in wastewater infrastructure
between 2002 and 2020 in the United States. Estimates FEDERAL AND NONFEDERAL ROLES
of capital needs for drinking water infrastructure range
from $178 billion to $475 billion (EPA, 2002). Thus, As the nation seeks to meet its water needs through
questions arise as to whether the water and wastewater new water supply approaches, such as water reuse, Con-
infrastructure of the future will be (or should be) vastly gress and the executive branch are increasingly asking
different from that of today, and if so, what is the role what the federal government role should be (Cody and
of water reuse? Although this question is beyond the Carter, 2010). At present, as discussed in Chapter 10,
scope of the committee’s charge, there are several im- the federal presence is primarily directed toward regu-
portant questions based on future population scenarios lation of wastewater discharges, injection of reclaimed
and future water and wastewater infrastructure designs, water, and regulation of drinking water. Various reuse
whose answers will affect research priorities and the projects have benefited from federal funding, perhaps
generation of future technologies. through Title XVI (see Box 9-1), which is generally
limited to the 17 western continental states, or as ear-
• What are the water quality implications of marks in congressional budgets. The federal EPA has
expanded reuse, including de facto reuse, under future administered programs for funding municipal waste-
population scenarios,1 considering that contributions water treatment facilities in the past, and administers
of wastewater in receiving streams are likely to increase a revolving loan fund for these purposes. The question
under current population projections and migration of the appropriateness of federal funding for water sup-
trends? ply projects is currently being debated in Congress and
• What are the implications of increased water the administration of the executive branch (Cody and
conservation on the potential contribution of water Carter, 2010) and is not a question that this commit-
reuse, and how will the likely associated increase in tee is appropriately constituted to resolve. Instead, the
salinity and other effects on water quality affect water committee reviewed the research programs supported
reuse applications? by both federal and nonfederal entities and discusses
• What are the water budget implications of vari- in this section appropriate roles to address the above
ous types of reuse, considering growing urban centers? research needs.
• How can future water reclamation plants be
designed (or existing plants upgraded) to better take Federal Agency Reuse Research
advantage of potential opportunities for water reuse?
• What advances in technology are needed to sup- There is no single lead federal agency on water
port reuse to address future water needs? reuse–related research. Seven federal agencies provide
• What is the role of distributed wastewater treat- at least some research funding for water reuse: the U.S.
ment and reuse in future water management? Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), USGS, EPA, the U.S.
• What technologies can be applied to water rec- Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Centers for
lamation so that new plants can recover energy and use Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Depart-
resources most efficiently? ment of Energy (DOE), and the National Science
Foundation (NSF).
Additional research is needed to address these ques-
tions so that water reuse facilities constructed during USBR
this decade can provide appropriate benefits in the
USBR is the only federal agency with a specific
directive to address water reuse–related issues, and it
provides the largest amount of funding for water re-
1 It is estimated that by 2030, 86% of the U.S. population will
use–related research via several programs. In particular,
live in urban centers (U.S. Census, 2008).
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RESEARCH NEEDS
USGS
between 2000 and 2011, the USBR provided $17 mil-
lion in research funding to the WateReuse Research
USGS maintains an extensive water research pro-
Foundation, through the Title XVI program (see
gram although there is no specific water reuse–related
Box 9-1), which was used to support research projects
directive within the agency. Three areas of ongoing
and workshops on microbial and trace organic contami-
research with relevance to water reuse include the Wa-
nants, treatment technologies, salinity management,
ter Census, aquifer storage and recovery (ASR), and
and social and institutional issues such as public percep-
wastewater-derived chemicals in the aquatic environ-
tion, economics, and marketing. Additional programs,
ment. The Water Census is an updated and expanded
such as the Secure Water Act (Public Law [P.L.] 111-
approach to prior efforts by USGS to account for water
11, Subtitle F, enacted in 2009), which was intended
supplies and water use in the United States, includ-
to “accelerate the adoption and use of advanced water
ing precipitation, evaporation, groundwater recharge,
treatment technologies to increase water supply,” the
storage, water withdrawals, consumptive uses, return
Rural Water Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-451), and the Wa-
flows, and ecological needs. ASR research under way
ter Desalination Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-298), provide
seeks to understand changing geochemistry associated
some support for reuse-related research. The USBR
with subsurface storage of water (which may or may
estimates that approximately 5 percent of the research
not include reclaimed water). USGS has also conducted
projects funded under the Water Desalination Act were
extensive research on the occurrence of human-use
specifically targeted toward water reuse, although some
compounds in the nation’s surface waters and has the
of the desalination research has relevance to reuse ap-
measurement capabilities to detect an extensive ar-
plications (C. Brown, USBR, personal communication,
ray of human-use compounds in water and sediment.
2009; Kevin Price, USBR, personal communication,
Research is currently under way to better understand
2011).
the occurrence, pathways, uptake, and effects of these
human-derived contaminants ( J. Bales, USGS, per-
EPA sonal communication, 2010).
EPA has many ongoing efforts that are relevant
USDA
to reuse, although like most of the federal agencies
discussed in this section, the agency has no specific
In recent years, USDA has developed a strong
directive driving research in water reuse. Water reuse,
interest in water reuse as a means to provide reliable
however, is relevant to many of the agency’s cross-
supplies of water for irrigation in areas where water is
cutting interests—particularly at the nexus of water
scarce. They have cosponsored two conferences (2007,
availability and water quality. EPA has an extensive
2008) with the WateReuse Research Foundation on
research program on human health effects of chemicals
Agricultural Water Reuse, and starting in 2007 began
(using screening and laboratory studies) and pathogens
funding research on water reuse in agriculture. Through
(using epidemiological data). Through the Unregulated
its National Institute of Food and Agriculture, USDA
Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR) program
has distributed grants for research on minimizing
described in Chapter 10, EPA supports research on
food safety hazards, understanding pharmaceuticals
analytical methods, monitoring, and treatment efficacy
and hormones in agricultural production, impacts of
and conducts extensive data analysis on the occurrence
reclaimed water on plants and soils, treatment meth-
of contaminants. It supports research to understand the
ods to prevent impacts to soils, and long-term effects
human health and environmental effects of endocrine-
of irrigating with reclaimed water. It is also collecting
disrupting chemicals at environmentally relevant con-
information on the extent of the use of reclaimed water
centrations. Research is also under way on pathogen
in irrigation in an annual inventory of farms conducted
monitoring, sampling, and analysis (A. Levine, EPA,
by its National Agricultural Statistics Service ( J. Do-
personal communication, 2010).
browolski, USDA, personal communication, 2010).
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200 WATER REUSE
CDC ecology, urban studies, economics, and law. The center
is funded with $18.5M over the next 5 years.
Although CDC has no specific directive in water
reuse, the agency is interested in the issues from a
Other Federal Interests in Reuse
number of perspectives, particularly in its National
Center for Environmental Health and its Division of Several federal agencies have interests in reuse,
Emergency and Environmental Health Services. CDC although they are not currently sponsoring research
has supported two research efforts on the subject: an to support it. For example, the U.S. Agency for Inter-
analysis of reuse as a means to protect human health national Development (USAID) has major interests
during drought conditions and a research project in water management and in water and sanitation for
to enhance capacity to investigate the link between health in developing countries. USAID has sponsored
wastewater, groundwater contamination, and human projects to implement nonpotable water reuse projects
health (M. Zarate-Bermudez, CDC, personal com- in Morocco and Jordon. It anticipates that water reuse
munication, 2010). will become an increasingly important part of water
management in water-poor nations, particularly as part
DOE of efforts to enhance food security during droughts
( J. Franckiewicz, USAID, personal communication,
DOE’s National Energy Technology Labora - 2010). Large military installations of the Department
tory is conducting research on ways to reduce water of Defense may have their own wastewater treatment
demand associated with energy production. Specific plants and may practice nonpotable reuse to maximize
to municipal wastewater reuse, DOE is conducting their available water resources.
research on the technical issues associated with using
reclaimed wastewater for power plant cooling, on costs
NGO-Sponsored Research
and benefits of various levels of reclaimed water treat-
ment, and analyses of ongoing use of reclaimed water
WateReuse Research Foundation
for this purpose.
The mission of the WateReuse Research Founda-
NSF tion is to conduct and promote applied research on the
reuse, reclamation, recycling, and desalination of water.
NSF sponsors approximately 20 percent of the
The foundation provides $2–$4 million per year to sup-
water resources research in the United States (NRC,
port research, with a significant portion coming from
2004), although it has no specific funding emphasis on
the USBR through the Title XVI program. Between
water reuse. However, water reuse-related research may
2000 and 2011, the WateReuse Research Foundation
be funded under related initiatives or under a new ini-
used the $17 million funding from USBR to leverage
tiative on water sustainability and climate. For example,
$41 million in research, through additional contribu-
improved technology for water reuse is a focal area for
tions from state and local agencies, the private sector,
an NSF-funded center on water treatment technology
universities, and others (K. Price, USBR, personal
(the Center of Advanced Materials for the Purifica-
communication, 2011). Supported research categories
tion of Water with Systems [WaterCAMPWS]) (B.
include policy and social sciences, microbiology and
Hamilton, NSF, personal communication, 2010).2 NSF
disinfection, chemistry and toxicology, and treatment
has also recently funded an engineering research center
technologies. They also conduct periodic analysis of
on reinventing the nation’s urban water infrastructure
research needs in the area of water reuse (W. Miller,
(ReNWUIt) that will bring together researchers from
WateReuse Research Foundation, personal communi-
environmental engineering, earth sciences, hydrology,
cation, 2010).
2 See http://www.watercampws.uiuc.edu/.
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RESEARCH NEEDS
Water Research Foundation of stormwater and greywater (D. Woltering, WERF,
personal communication, 2010).
The Water Research Foundation (formerly known
as the American Water Works Association Research
Coordination to Support Needed Research
Foundation) is a member-supported NGO established
to support applied research related to drinking water. The research needs identified in Box 11-1 cannot
Although reuse-specific projects represent a small be addressed by a single organization or agency, because
fraction of their overall research portfolio, the Water collectively, they rely on expertise that is distributed
Research Foundation has sponsored research on SAT among agencies and universities. However, the agen-
in water reuse projects. The foundation has recently cies and NGOs with interest in reuse could collectively
committed up to $1 million per year for at least 5 years work to address these research needs, with improved
to research on trace organic contaminants (e.g., phar- coordination. As described in the previous sections, at
maceuticals, personal care products) in drinking water, least seven federal agencies and three NGOs are con-
including assessment of exposure, improvements in ducting or supporting research related to water reuse.
analytical methods, and improved frameworks for risk Of these, two federal agencies (USBR and EPA) and
communication for utilities (S. Cline, Water Research the NGOs represent the lead contributors to water
Foundation, personal communication, 2009). reuse–related research. This speaks to the need for
improved coordination to see that these research needs
National Water Research Institute are addressed.
Under the current research funding framework,
The National Water Research Institute (NWRI) the bulk of the water reuse research is focused on
supports scientific research and outreach efforts related near-term research priorities, largely dominated by
to ensuring clean and reliable water. NWRI has six particular agency interests or issues of concern to the
member organizations, all based in Southern Califor- NGOs’ subscribers. The NGOs have limited resources
nia, with strong interests and vast ongoing efforts in with which to address long-term (~5-year) research
water reuse. Since its founding in 1991, NWRI has efforts. In the past, the Joint Water Reuse and De-
invested over $17 million in research. Funded research salination Task Force, an alliance of the USBR, Sandia
topics have included disinfection guidelines for water National Laboratories, and research organizations with
reuse, the fate and transport of trace organic contami- interests in desalination and water reuse, was used to
nants, subsurface transport of bacteria and viruses, and pool research funding toward longer term research
use of bioassays and monitoring to assess trace con- investments, improving coordination, and reducing
taminant removal in water reuse.3 redundancy, although the group is not as active as
it once was. The Global Water Research Coalition
Water Environment Research Foundation (GWRC), a collaboration between 12 research orga-
nizations around the globe, including organizations
The Water Environment Research Foundation from Singapore, Australia, France, and the United
( WERF) is a subscriber-based organization focused on States (WERF and the Water Research Foundation),
wastewater- and stormwater-related research. In gen- with partnership from EPA, serves a similar function
eral, WERF applies only a small portion of its research from an international perspective. The GWRC aims
funding to projects that are directly focused on the reuse to leverage funding and expertise toward water quality
of municipal wastewater, but it has funded studies on research of global interest. Both groups, if active, could
public perception of water reuse and attenuation of assist with coordination and leveraging resources to ac-
trace organic contaminants in landscape irrigation. The complish the needed research.
organization is also interested in research on the reuse Among federal agencies, water resources research
is spread among numerous agencies, based on specific
issues (e.g., quality [EPA], quantity [USBR], energy
[DOE]) (NRC, 2004), but water scarcity concerns
3 See http://www.nwri-usa.org/researchprogram.htm.
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202 WATER REUSE
call for a closer coordination of federal efforts. Thus, the areas of human health, social, and environmental
the intergovernmental Subcommittee on Water Avail- issues, and treatment efficiency and quality assurance
ability and Quality (SWAQ) was formed under the ex- hold significant potential to advance the safe, reliable,
ecutive branch’s Committee on Environment, Natural and cost-effective reuse of municipal wastewater where
Resources, and Sustainability (CENRS).4 SWAQ is traditional sources are inadequate.
Improved coordination among federal and non-
chartered to “facilitate communication and coordina-
federal entities is important for addressing the long-
tion among federal agencies and representatives from
term research needs related to water reuse. Address-
nonfederal sectors on issues of science, technology, and
policy related to water availability and quality.” Addi- ing the research needs identified in Box 11-1 will
tionally, SWAQ is charged to periodically assess “pri- require the involvement of several federal agencies as
orities for research and development of systems related well as support from nongovernmental research organi-
to enhancement of water supplies,” advise the CENRS zations. Several mechanisms could be used to enhance
on additional research needs, and develop coordinated the coordination of reuse research, minimize duplica-
plans to provide the needed research (SWAQ charter tion, and leverage limited resources. A past example
provided in NRC, 2004). Thus far, SWAQ has not been that could be built upon is the Joint Water Reuse and
used to coordinate federal efforts on reuse research, Desalination Task Force. Additionally, the SWAQ,
but federal leadership will be needed if the issues and which is chartered to facilitate coordination among
obstacles to water reuse are to be addressed. federal agencies, could be used to enhance coordination
of federal water-reuse-related research.
If the federal government decides to develop
CONCLUSIONS
national regulations for water reuse, a more robust
The committee identified 14 water reuse research research effort will be needed to support that initiative
priorities (see Box 11-1) that are not currently being with enhanced coordination among federal and non-
addressed in a major way. These research priorities in federal entities. Such an effort would benefit from the
leadership of a single federal agency, which could serve
4 The Committee on Environment, Natural Resources, and Sus- as the primary entity for coordination of research and
tainability reports to the Office of Science and Technology Policy’s
for information dissemination.
National Science and Technology Council.
