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1
Introduction
BACKGROUND
Exposure science is essential for the protection of public health and the
environment. However, the challenges and opportunities for exposure science
are considerable. The ability to address them will influence advances in human
health and ecosystem protection. Exposure science also will play a role in deci-
sion-making in other arenas, including consumer-product safety, environmental
planning, climate-change mitigation, and energy development. This report pro-
vides a roadmap to navigate the future of exposure science to achieve greater
integration and maximize its utility in the environmental and occupational health
sciences, environmental-systems science, risk assessment, sustainability science,
and industrial ecology.
Exposure science addresses the contact of humans and other organisms
with chemical, physical, or biologic (CBP) stressors1 (EPA 2003; EPA 2011b)
over space and time and the fate of these stressors within the ecosystem and
organisms--including humans. Although methods of assessment will depend on
the situation, exposure science has two primary goals: to understand how stress-
ors affect human and ecosystem health and to prevent or reduce contact with
harmful stressors or to promote contact with beneficial stressors to improve pub-
lic and ecosystem health. The impact of environmental stressors on human and
ecologic health is enormous.
For example, the World Health Organization estimates that 24-40% of
global disease burden (healthy life-years lost) can be attributed to environmental
factors (Smith et al. 1999; WHO 2004; Prüss-Üstün and Corvalán 2006). How-
ever, it is not possible to be exact in such calculations, partly because what is
"environmental" is not defined consistently (see Box 1-1 for use of the term
environmental in this report). In a burden-of-disease context, environmental
1
The Environmental Protection Agency defines a stressor as "any physical, chemical,
or biological entity that can induce an adverse response" (EPA 2011a).
19
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20 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
factors play a role in nearly all diseases, even ones that are not caused directly
by environmental risk factors, by altering the course of disease initiated by other
causes. In addition, if the total burden of disease is simply decomposed into "na-
ture" or "nurture", it fails to account directly for the possibly large proportion
that could be due to the interplay between the two (geneenvironment interac-
tions). Improving our understanding of environmental factors and their relation-
ships with disease is critical for preventing illness and death.
With respect to ecosystems, the 1999 National Research Council report
Our Common Journey: A Transition Toward Sustainability (NRC1999) reported
that the rising losses of wild nature, species number, species diversity, and eco-
system integrity were associated with exposures to environmental stressors, in-
cluding those related to urban and agricultural land conversion and climate
change.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the relationship of exposure to other key elements
along the environmental-health continuum from the source of a stressor to an
outcome. This figure has evolved from previous diagrams (for example, Smith
1988a; Lioy 1990; NRC 1998; EPA 2009a). For more than 20 years, this
framework has demonstrated the central role of exposure science in environ-
mental health science in that exposure sits midway between the sources of pollu-
tion (and other stressors) on the left--elements that typically can be con-
trolled--and adverse health outcomes on the right, which need to be prevented.
Exposure is strategically located upstream of dose and yet provides information
and metrics that inform source control and health risk.
BOX 1-1 Definition and Scope of Exposure Science
Exposure science is defined by this committee as the collection and
analysis of quantitative and qualitative information needed to understand the
nature of contact between receptors (such as people or ecosystems) and
physical, chemical, or biologic stressors. Exposure science strives to create a
narrative that captures the spatial and temporal dimensions of exposure
events with respect to acute and long-term effects on human populations and
ecosystems.
For the purposes of this report, the committee focuses on environmental
risk factors and excludes behavioral or lifestyle factors--such as diet, alcohol,
and smoking--although it includes contaminants in food, water, and environ-
mental tobacco smoke. It also excludes social risk factors (for example, crime
and child abuse) but does consider them as modifying influences on expo-
sures to stressors (Smith et al. 1999). The influence of social factors on envi-
ronmental exposures is an area of active research. Natural hazards (for ex-
ample, weather and arsenic contamination) are included here.
A central theme of this report is the interplay between the external and in-
ternal environments and the opportunity for exposure science to exploit novel
technologies for assessing biologically active internal exposures from external
sources.
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Introduction 21
Stressor Receptor
Environmental
Source Concentration/ Exposure Dose Outcome
Condition
FIGURE 1-1 The classic environmental-health continuum. Figure 1-2 illustrates the
revised version discussed in the present report. Source: Adapted from EPA 2009a.
There are many notable examples of the roles that exposure science can
play in protecting public health. Consider how measurements of childhood
blood lead concentrations since the 1970s reveal the dramatic efficacy of lead
removal from gasoline in reducing exposure to this neurotoxicant in children
(Muntner et al. 2005; Jones et al. 2009). Population-scale measurements of co-
tinine in urine document the reduction of exposure to second-hand tobacco
smoke that resulted from control of tobacco-smoking in the workplace and pub-
lic areas (EPA SAB 1992). Exposure modeling from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's (EPA) National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment program has
provided valuable information for communities on their exposure sources, con-
centrations, and risks and has helped to shed light on exposure disparities and
environmental-justice issues (for example, Pastor et al. 2005).
Exposure science has played a critical role in understanding the influence
of stressors on ecologic systems. For example, extensive exposure assessments
of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been linked to liver damage
in bottom-dwelling fish in Puget Sound, and field studies have demonstrated that
containment of PAH sources has led to declines in PAH concentrations and a
resulting decline in liver damage in fish (Myers et al. 2003).
Exposure science has applications in industrial, military, commercial, and
global contexts. It is central to tracking chemicals and other agents that are in-
troduced into global commerce at increasing rates, often with little information
on their hazard potential (GAO 2005). Increasingly, exposure science is used for
homeland security and the protection of deployed soldiers. Rapid detection of
potentially harmful radiation or toxic chemicals is essential for protecting troops
and the general public (IOM 2000). The ability to detect chemical contaminants
in drinking water at low, biologically relevant concentrations quickly can help to
identify emerging health threats, and monitoring of harmful algal blooms and
airborne pollen can help to identify health-relevant effects of a changing climate.
As described in more detail in Chapter 3, applications of exposure science
are critical for toxicology, epidemiology, risk assessment, and risk management.
For example, toxicology provides information about how different chemical
concentrations may affect public or ecologic health in laboratory studies or
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22 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
computer models, but the value of information is greatly increased when it is
combined with comprehensive and reliable exposure information. Similarly,
epidemiology requires exposure information to compare outcomes in popula-
tions that have different exposures. Collection of better exposure data can also
provide more precise information regarding alternative control or regulatory
measures and lead to more efficient and cost-effective protection of public and
ecologic health.
In addition to its applications to other fields, exposure science data can be
used independently to define trends, assess spatial or population variability, pro-
vide information on prevention and intervention, identify populations or ecosys-
tems that have disproportionate exposures, and evaluate regulatory effective-
ness.2
Exposure science is also poised to play a critical role in improving the
ability to understand and address increasingly important human health and eco-
logic challenges and to support the development of sustainable industrial, agri-
cultural, and energy technologies. Recognizing the need for a prospective ex-
amination of exposure science, EPA and the National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences asked the National Research Council to develop a long-range
vision for exposure science and a strategy for implementing the vision over the
next 20 years (see Appendix B for statement of task). In response to this request,
the National Research Council convened the Committee on Human and Envi-
ronmental Exposure Science in the 21st Century. The committee--which com-
prised experts in monitoring, modeling, environmental transport and transforma-
tion, geographic information science and related technologies, measurement and
analytic techniques, risk assessment and risk management, epidemiology, occu-
pational health, risk communication, ethics, informatics, and ecologic services--
prepared this report.
DEFINING THE SCOPE OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE
Exposure science--sometimes defined as the study of the contact between
receptors (such as humans or ecosystems) and physical, chemical, or biologic
stressors--can be thought of most simply as the study of stressors, receptors,
and their contact, including the roles of space and time. For example, ecosys-
tems are receptors for such stressors as mercury, which may cascade from the
ecosystem to populations to individuals within the ecosystem because of con-
centration and accumulation in the food web, which leads to exposure of hu-
mans and other species. As the stressor (mercury in this case) is absorbed into
2
In 2011, the International Society of Exposure Science and the Journal of Exposure
Science and Environmental Epidemiology published a compendium of digests (Graham
2011) that illustrate situations in which application of exposure science resulted in sub-
stantial health or policy benefits and situations in which lack of exposure information
resulted in adverse consequences.
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Introduction 23
the bodies of individuals, it may come into contact with other receptors, such as
tissues and organs.
As the scientific communities generating and using exposure data have
evolved, so have the terms and definitions used to characterize exposures. Some
refer to dose (exposure dose, target dose, or external dose), others to exposure
(for example, external or internal exposure), and yet others to an amalgam (ex-
posure is external, dose is internal). A consistent language for the field of expo-
sure science is important for communicating within the field and among disci-
plines and for developing exposure-science metrics for source monitoring and
exposure prevention and reduction. The evolution of the field over the past 15
years has included a greater emphasis on the use of internal markers of exposure
to assist in defining exposure-response relationships. As such, the conceptual
basis of the field includes both external and internal exposures, using external
measurement and modeling methods and internal markers as tools for character-
izing past or current exposures. Appendix C provides more detailed discussion
on the application of this terminology.
To reflect the definition of exposure science and to embrace a broader
view of the role that exposure science plays in human-health and ecosystem-
health protection, the committee developed the conceptual framework in Figure
1-2.
The conceptual framework identifies and links the core elements of expo-
sure science: sources of stressors, environmental intensity (such as pollutant
concentrations3), timeactivity and behavior, contact of stressors and receptors,
and outcomes of contact. Figure 1-2 shows the role of upstream human and
natural factors in determining which stressors are mobilized and transported to
key receptors. (Examples of factors include choosing to use natural gas vs diesel
buses, or choosing to pay more for gasoline to drive a car vs taking the bus,
where the choice influences the source and can also influence behavior.) It indi-
cates the role of behavior of receptors and time in modifying the contact that
results from environmental intensities that influence exposure. It brings both
external and internal environments within exposure but retains the idea that ex-
posure is measured at some boundary between the source and receptor and that
dose is the amount of material that passes or otherwise has influence across the
boundary to come into contact with the target system, organ, or cell and pro-
duces an outcome. For example, a dose in one tissue, such as the blood, can
serve as an exposure of another tissue that the blood perfuses. Figure 1-2 recog-
nizes the feedbacks inherent in exposure science. Consider, for example, how
behavior changes in a diseased person or organism and influences exposure. The
outcome can also affect the source, as when a person who has an environmen-
tally mediated infectious disease becomes a source of pathogens in water sup-
plies (Eisenberg et al. 2005).
3
Intensity is the preferred term because some stressors, such as temperature excesses,
cannot be easily measured as concentrations.
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24 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
FIGURE 1-2 Core elements of exposure science.
Figure 1-3 frames an exposure narrative that plays out in space and time,
and is intended to elucidate the stressor-receptor linkages at different levels of
intergation. As a human (or fish, bird, or other organism) has changing contacts
with different habitats, the intensity of a stressor changes, as do the number and
duration of contacts. Here, exposure amounts to a multidimensional description
of the location, time, and intensity of the targetstressor contacts. The exposure
narrative covers relationships between receptors and locations and between loca-
tions and stressors; it provides a basis for drawing inferences about receptor
outcome relationships. That often requires recognition that any receptor can be
associated with multiple environments (locations) and that locations can be as-
sociated with multiple stressors. Exposure science can be applied at any level of
biologic organization--ecologic, community, or individual--and, within the
individual, at the level of external exposure, internal exposure, or dose.
THE PAST MILLENNIA
To appreciate the vision for exposure science in the 21st century
(discussed in Chapter 2), it is important to understand its historical context.
Exposure science arose from such disciplines as industrial hygiene, radiation
protection, and environmental toxicology, in which the importance of assessing
exposure has been demonstrated. In one of the earliest efforts to address expo-
sure, the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (about 400 BC) demonstrated in
his treatise Air, Water, and Places that the appearance of disease in human
populations is influenced by the quality of air, water, and food; the topography
of the land; and general living habits (Wasserstein 1982). In the 1500s, the
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Dose
Exposure (at environment-target boundary)
Region/Ecosystem
Community
Environment
Built Environment Activities/Behavior
Populations and Individual(s)
Rhythms
and cycles
Blood/Tissues/Organs
Cells Target
FIGURE 1-3 An illustration of how exposures can be measured or modeled at different levels of integration in space and time, from source to
dose, and among different human, biologic, and geographic systems. That is exposure science can be applied at any level of biologic organiza-
tion--ecologic, community, or individual--and, within the individual, at the level of external exposure, internal exposure, or dose. Source:
Inset on exposures in space adapted from Gulliver and Briggs 2005.
25
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26 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
physician and alchemist Paracelsus framed the widely cited toxicologic concept
that "dose makes the poison" (Binswanger and Smith 2000). Ramazzini, in his
1703 treatise Diseases of the Workers, identified workplace exposures to single
and multiple agents and the migration of contaminants into the community envi-
ronment as causing disease (Ramazzini 1703). Percivall Pott first demonstrated
the association between cancer and exposure to soot with his studies of scrotal
cancer in chimney sweeps (Pott 1775). John Snow's study of water-use patterns
and their relation to disease in London allowed him to link a source of water
contamination to cholera (Snow 1885). The avoidance of potentially harmful
exposures through the separation of land use between human residences and
industrial facilities was proposed in the latter part of the 19th century (Howard
1898).
Use of exposure assessment in radiation health protection can be traced
back to roughly 1900 after the discovery of x rays. During the 1920s, Alice
Hamilton established the formal study of industrial medicine in the United
States. The metrics for and applications of exposure science to radiation protec-
tion have grown in sophistication and reliability over the last century (NRC
2006; ICRP 2007; EPA 2011c). Many of the basic principles for measuring,
monitoring, and modeling exposures to airborne contaminants, including the
earliest use of exposure biology, come from the field of industrial hygiene. The
publication of Silent Spring (Carson 1962) and its focus on the transfer and
magnification of persistent pollutants through food webs fostered the growth of
environmental toxicology and chemistry, which address chemical fate and trans-
port through multiple media and multiple pathways.
By the middle 1980s, exposure evaluations had evolved into an estab-
lished scientific discipline that moved beyond single routes, single chemicals,
and single pathways toward an understanding of "total" exposure. The 1991
National Research Council report Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne
Pollutants (NRC 1991a) laid the foundation for further development of the field
by defining the core principles of exposure assessment. Between 1980 and 1985,
the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study was conducted to
assess personal exposures of 600 residents in seven US cities to chemical expo-
sures by one or more routes of entry into the body and to estimate the exposures
and body burdens of urban populations in several cities (EPA 1987). The TEAM
studies established a framework for examining total human exposure covering
multiple routes of entry into the body (Wallace 1987).
By promoting the concept that it is important to "measure where the peo-
ple are" (Wallace 1977), the TEAM studies revealed new source categories and
control options to reduce or prevent exposures. For example, application of the
concept resulted in increasing attention to exposures indoors, where people
spend a substantial portion of their lives (Smith 1988a). Globally, it pointed to
the importance of indoor pollution in rural areas of developing countries, where
a large portion of the world's breathing is done but relatively little research or
monitoring was being conducted (Smith 1988b).
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Introduction 27
Control measures revealed by a total-exposure framework include meas-
ures to increase the time that doors are closed between a house and its garage in
the United States and thereby reduce human exposure to tailpipe emissions in
the home, even though this has no effect on vehicle emissions or ambient con-
centrations in the garage. The exposure control included a simple spring on the
door to allow it to stay open a shorter time.
Two major advances that helped to establish the credibility of exposure
science as a discipline were the formation of the International Society of Expo-
sure Analysis in 1989 (now the International Society of Exposure Science) and
the publication of the Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemi-
ology in 1990.
A number of important milestones followed. In 1992, EPA published its
Guidelines for Exposure Assessment, which served as a companion to its toxi-
cology and risk-assessment guidelines. That was followed in 1993 by the initia-
tion of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS), which
evaluated human exposure to multiple chemicals on a community and regional
scale (EPA 2009b). NHEXAS monitored chemicals in blood and urine; incorpo-
rated environmental sampling of air, water, soil, and dust; and conducted per-
sonal monitoring of air, food, and beverages (NRC 1991b; EPA 2009b). It
brought attention to the role of the proximity of emissions as opposed to the
magnitude of emissions in determining overall exposure--low-level emissions
near human receptors, such as those from indoor environments, need to receive
at least as much attention as outdoor stack emissions (Sexton et al. 1995). In
1997, EPA's Exposure Factors Handbook was published that presents data and
evaluation of allometric and behavioral factors that affect exposures. It became
an international resource for risk assessors who use these factors to estimate
exposures for various pathways.4
Over the last 20 years, exposure science has evolved as a theoretical and
practical science to include the development of mathematical models and other
tools for examining how individuals and populations come into contact with
environmental stressors of concern. For example, the discovery that airborne
lead from gasoline combustion is deposited on soil, is tracked into homes, and
enters children via hand-to-mouth activities greatly expanded the focus on mul-
tipathway exposure assessments and the development of exposure models that
are validated through biomonitoring. Ott and others introduced timeactivity
models that were applied to air pollutants (Ott 1995). In the 1990s, exposure
models addressed multimedia and multipathway exposures, tracking pollutants
from multiple sources through air, water, soil, food, and indoor environments
(McKone and Daniels 1991).
4
A 2011 version has been released (EPA 2011b).
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28 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
Borrowing from the concept of "dose commitment"5 in radiation protec-
tion, researchers elaborated the concept of "exposure efficiency" in the 1980s
and 1990s (for example, Smith 1993). Early in the 21st century, the term intake
fraction was adopted to describe that concept (Bennett et al. 2002). It is defined
as the amount of material crossing the body's barriers per unit emitted and thus
is dimensionless. For air pollution, population intake fraction is the amount in-
haled by the population divided by the amount emitted per unit activity or time.
It directly connects the source and environmental-intensity boxes in Figure 1-2
with the exposure box, effectively incorporating the pathways in between with-
out needing to specify them. A striking characteristic of intake fraction is that it
varies by orders of magnitude among standard source categories--for example,
in the case of air pollution, from 10-6 for such remote sources as power plants to
10-4 for urban outdoor sources, roughly 5 x 10-3 for such indoor sources as un-
vented stoves, and 1.0 for active smoking. Not only does "dose make the poi-
son", therefore, but because proximity makes the dose, ultimately "place makes
the poison" (NRC 2003). However, the biologically-relevant time and intensity
of contact with an agent for each route of exposure needs to be considered (Lioy
1999).
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES: THE NEW MILLENNIUM
Since 2000, a number of activities have benefited from advances in expo-
sure science, and new challenges and opportunities have emerged. The Chil-
dren's Health Act of 2000 authorized the establishment of the National Chil-
dren's Study, a large-scale multiyear prospective study of children's health and
exposures intended to identify and characterize environmental influences (in-
cluding physical, chemical, biologic, and psychosocial) on children from birth to
adulthood. The study is under way, after the completion of the Vanguard Center
pilot programs and the incorporation of new tools and approaches to streamline
data collection at the household level and to capitalize on existing data for con-
structing community exposure baselines (IOM 2008; Trasande et al. 2011).
The increasing collection and evaluation of biomarkers of exposure and
effect also is providing growing opportunities for exposure science. The Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention's National Health and Nutrition Examina-
tion Survey (NHANES) published the first National Human Exposure Report in
2001, which used a subset of its subjects to assess the US population's exposure
to environmental chemicals on the basis of biomonitoring data. The reports have
been updated with publications released in 2003, 2005, and 2009, and annual
reports are expected. The NHANES data provide a unique and growing potential
5
Dose commitment is the dose that will accumulate in an individual or population
over a given period (for example, 50 years) from releases of radioactivity from a given
source.
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Introduction 29
for evaluating sourceexposure and exposuredisease relationships in a national
population-based representative sample. California has started its own biomoni-
toring program (OEHHA 2007), and other states and cities are working on bio-
monitoring efforts (CDC 2010). The emerging biomonitoring data sets will al-
low improved tracking of exposures over time, space, and across populations for
an increasingly larger number of chemicals. This information will be essential
for evaluating the efficacy of exposure reduction policies, and for prioritizing
and assessing chemical risks.
A prime example of the benefits of improved methods of exposure as-
sessment is their use in environmental epidemiology, in which more accurate
estimates of the health effects of important stressors have been achieved by re-
ducing exposure misclassification, for example, in air pollution (Jerrett et al.
2005) and ionizing radiation (NRC 2006). There are many opportunities for con-
tinued improvements in this arena.
The Exposome
Rapid advances in methods
of sampling and analysis, ge- The exposome is defined as the record
nomics, systems biology, bioin- of all exposures both internal and exter-
nal that people receive throughout their
formatics, and toxicology have
lifetime (Rappaport and Smith 2010).
laid the groundwork for major
advances in the applications of
exposure science. One such development is the concept of the "exposome",
which theoretically can capture the totality of environmental exposures (includ-
ing lifestyle factors, such as diet, stress, drug use, and infection) from the prena-
tal period on, using a combination of biomarkers, genomic technologies, and
informatics (Wild 2005; Rappaport and Smith 2010). Understanding how expo-
sures from occupation, environment, diet, lifestyle, and the like interact with
unique individual characteristics--such as genetics, physiology, and epigenetic
makeup resulting in disease--is the fundamental challenge implicit in the expo-
some. The exposome in concert with the human genome holds promise for elu-
cidating the etiology of chronic diseases (Rappaport and Smith 2010; Wild
2012).
The concept of the exposome offers an intriguing and promising direction
for exposure science that will continue to spur developments in the field, espe-
cially in biomarkers, data-sharing, and informatic approaches to large datasets.
By encompassing many biomarkers and stressors at once, exposome analysis
can be the source of important new hypotheses of relationships between internal
markers of stress and the external environment. Within the conception of expo-
sure science proposed here (see Figure 1-2), the committee, in Chapter 2, broad-
ens the exposome concept to the "eco-exposome", that is the extension of expo-
sure science from the point of contact between stressor and receptor inward into
the organism and outward to the general environment, including the ecosphere.
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Introduction 31
Use of Exposure Science
The potential benefits of exposure science have not yet been fully realized.
Among the important lags has been the slow incorporation of exposure science
into policy and regulation. For example, EPA has focused on control of radon in
drinking water whereas population radon exposure is actually dominated by
other unregulated sources (NRC 1994; EPA 2008). Another example is the poor
monitoring and control of indoor sources (for example, volatile organic com-
pounds) even though air-pollution exposures clearly are dominated by them, as
first definitively shown by the TEAM studies in the 1980s (Wallace 1991;
Myers and Maynard 2005). Finally, even though occupational settings still
dominate exposures to many important stressors in some populations, no effort
to integrate them into population exposure-reduction strategies is under way.
Political and economic barriers may help to explain those lapses, but they con-
stitute lost opportunities to protect more people at lower cost by using exposure
science (Smith 1995; Ott et al. 2007).
Integration of Human and Ecologic Exposure Science
There has been a gap been between the application of exposure science to
human health and its application to ecosystem health, which is due in part to the
lack of recognition of the connection between human and ecosystem health--in
reality, they are inextricably linked. The connection between human health and
ecosystem health is explored in the context of ecosystem services; as seen in
Figure 1-4, human welfare depends on ecosystem health.
A better integration of ecologic and human exposure science is critical be-
cause ecologic conditions strongly mediate exposures and their consequences
for humans and ecosystems. Not only do ecosystems contain multiple stressors
that can act synergistically but organisms' environments are seldom optimal and
may heighten their sensitivity to stressors. As illustrated by the examples in Box
1-2, degradation of ecosystems due to human activities increases exposure to or
consequences of chemical and biologic stressors in both humans and ecosys-
tems. Elucidating relationships between exposure and key abiotic and biotic
ecologic factors is necessary if we are to understand risk.
ROADMAP
The present report builds on the concepts presented in the National Re-
search Council reports Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century and Science and De-
cisions: Advancing Risk Assessment to develop a framework for bringing expo-
sure science to a point where it fully complements toxicology and risk
assessment and can be used to protect human health and the environment better.
The committee also addresses a set of emerging needs, such as the need to
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32 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
FIGURE 1-4 Connections between ecosystem services and human well-being. The
framework of ecosystem services makes explicit the linkages between human and ecolo-
gic health. The strength of the linkages and the potential for mediation differ in different
ecosystems and regions. Adverse exposures can indirectly affect human health and well-
being by influencing a range of services provided by ecosystems. Source: Millenium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005. Reprinted with permission; copyright 2005, World Re-
sources Institute.
provide rapid assessment protocols and technologies to respond to natural and
human-caused disasters and the needs for community participation and envi-
ronmental justice. The report describes new technologies and opportunities to
make exposure science even more effective in its traditional roles of evaluating
environmental control measures, improving understanding of the link between
environmental stressors and disease, and designing more cost-effective ways to
reduce and prevent health risks. Finally, where possible, the committee offers
ideas for integrating the applications of exposure science to human health and
ecosystem health.
In Chapter 2, the committee presents a vision for exposure science. Chap-
ter 3 describes the opportunities and challenges for applying exposure science to
toxicology, epidemiology, and risk assessment and how exposure science can
play a more effective role in other fields, such as environmental regulation, ur-
ban planning, ecosystem management, and disaster management. Chapter 4 ad-
dresses emerging demands for exposure-science information. Chapter 5 identi-
fies scientific and technologic advances that are shaping the field and that
support the committee's vision. Chapter 6 discusses promoting and sustaining
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Introduction 33
public trust in exposure science including the management of personal and envi-
ronmental exposure data. Chapter 7 describes the path forward for exposure
science in the 21st century.6
BOX 1-2 Illustrations Demonstrating How the
Degradation of Ecosystems Due to Human Activities
Increases Exposures to Chemical and Biologic Stressors
Rising temperatures. Whether caused by shifts in climate or land uses (for ex-
ample, deforestation, reduced vegetative cover, and urban heat islands),
changes in temperature can directly prompt health-threatening exposures (for
example, extreme heat events) or indirectly influence exposure to other sub-
stances. In aquatic ecosystems, degraded riparian zones, loss of forest cover,
runoff from impervious surfaces, and discharges from industry can lead to rising
water temperatures and increased toxicity. Above-normal temperatures com-
promise function and integrity of aquatic ecosystems. In addition, high tempera-
tures can increase sensitivity of aquatic animals to heavy metals, including
cadmium (Lannig et al. 2006; Cherkasov et al. 2006, 2007), mercury (Slotsbo et
al. 2009), copper (Gupta et al.1981; Boeckman and Bidwell 2006; Khan et al.
2006), and lead (Khan et al. 2006). High temperatures also may amplify effects
of pesticides--such as diazinon (Osterauer and Köhler 2008), terbufos, and
trichlorfon (Brecken-Folse et al. 1994; Howe et al. 1994)--on fish.
Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment. Agricultural runoff and untreated sewage
effluent are two important causes of eutrophication, in which aquatic ecosys-
tems accumulate high concentrations of nutrients (for example, phosphates
and nitrates) that promote plant growth. Algal growth can become excessive
and sometimes lead to harmful algal blooms (Paerl 1997; Cloern 2001;
Anderson et al. 2002; Kemp et al. 2005) and anoxic (low-oxygen) conditions
that directly kill organisms and that can increase sensitivity to chemical
stressors. For example, low dissolved oxygen prompted higher mortality in
daphnids exposed to carbendazim (Ferreira et al. 2008), in crabs exposed to
copper (Depledge 1987), and in fish exposed to alkylphenols (Gupta et al.
1983).
Reduced access to water. Human-associated changes in hydrologic re-
gimes--including construction of dams and levees, depletion of groundwater
supplies, drainage of wetlands, and removal of vegetation-- profoundly affect
water availability for humans and ecologic communities alike. Aside from the
direct effects on ecosystem goods and services related to water, these an-
(Continued)
6
Given its terms of reference, the committee addresses primarily exposure-science is-
sues related to the United States and other developed countries. In addition, the commit-
tee does not focus on uses of exposure principles in regulation and policy.
OCR for page 34
34 Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and A Strategy
BOX 1-2 Continued
thropogenic stressors can promote dehydration, which can increase concen-
tration of toxicants and thereby increase risk of damage. Chemicals also can
reduce drought tolerance of organisms by interfering with physiologic adapta-
tions, as has been demonstrated in earthworms exposed to copper (Holm-
strup 1997) and in springtails exposed to polyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(Sjursen et al. 2001), lidane (Demon and Eijsackers 1985), and surfactants
(Holmstrup 1997; Skovlund et al. 2006). Diminishing access to safe water can
increase risk of some diseases as wildlife, livestock, and humans are brought
into closer contact.
Invasive species. Biotic invasion is one of the top drivers of biodiversity loss
and species endangerment. Invasive species can alter species interactions
and disrupt ecologic processes in ways that elicit serious ecologic, economic,
and health consequences. Even seemingly benign species can provoke un-
expected exposures. For example, a recent experiment suggested that Amur
honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii), a widespread invasive shrub in North Amer-
ica, increases human risk of exposure to ehrlichiosis, an emerging infectious
disease transmitted by ticks (Allan et al. 2010). The high risk would result
from a preference of a key tick and pathogen reservoir, white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus), for areas of dense honeysuckle. In aquatic systems,
the invasive round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is thought to facilitate
mobilization of contaminants in food webs and to increase exposure to hu-
mans because its persistence in contaminated environments draws predatory
fish, which also are popular game species, into polluted habitats (Marentette
et al. 2010).
Shifts in species composition. Because species differ in bioaccumulation ki-
netics, changes in the structure of animal communities can influence bioac-
cumulation and human exposure. Indeed, mercury accumulation rates differ
among bivalve species according to feeding strategies and assimilation effi-
ciencies (Cardoso et al. 2009). At the terrestrialaquatic interface, spiders
had more of the highly bioavailable methylmercury than other invertebrates
(such as lepidopterans and orthopterans) and, therefore were thought to be
responsible for transporting aquatic mercury into terrestrial food webs (Cristol
et al. 2008). The presence of particular species can provide buffers to expo-
sure in some cases; for example, some algal blooms are known to reduce
uptake of methylmercury into freshwater food webs (Pickhardt et al. 2002).
Habitat degradation. Habitat degradation can facilitate transport of contami-
nants into aquatic systems, transmission of diseases by promoting high den-
sities of vectors, and increases in the sensitivity of animals to exposures.
Changes in food availability in degraded habitats also can affect nutritional
status in ways that can mediate toxicity (Holmstrup et al. 2010). Conse-
quences of habitat degradation can be surprising. For example, erosion of
(Continued)
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Introduction 35
BOX 1-2 Continued
European saltmarshes dominated by cord grasses has resulted in massive
cadmium release from sediments in areas of cord-grass dieback (Hubner et
al. 2010); this shows how habitat degradation or sea-level rise, for example,
can increase exposure to heavy metals.
Emerging contaminants. A number of new compounds with novel chemistries
are rapidly expanding in commerce and are now appearing, or are expected
to occur, as widespread environmental contaminants. Important examples
include brominated and chlorinated organic compounds used as flame retar-
dants and a large and growing array of diverse organic and metal-based
nanomaterials (Lorber 2008; Stapleton et al. 2006, 2009; Wiesner et al.
2009). Little is known about human health or ecologic effects of most of these
materials. Similarly, little is known about fates and exposures; it is difficult to
measure most of them at environmentally relevant concentrations in media
and in organisms. The situation is particularly problematic with nanomaterials.
It is likely that as their abundance increases in the environment, they will con-
tribute to the sum of multiple stressors to which humans and ecosystems are
exposed. And their fates and effects will be influenced by the environmental
variables described above. It is timely for exposure science to be rapidly de-
veloping concomitantly with these new chemistries.
Greenhouse-gas emissions. Increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon
dioxide stimulate growth of poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) and causes
plants to produce a more allergenic form of urushiol (Mohan et al., 2006).
Anthropogenic changes in the atmosphere thus are expected to lead to more
abundant and more toxic poison ivy.
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