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Committee on Human and Environmental
Exposure Science in the 21st Century
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
Division on Earth and Life Studies
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract EP-C-09-003 between the National Academy of
Sciences and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The project was also supported by
the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences through this contract. Any opin-
ions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of
the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that
provided support for this project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-26468-6
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-26468-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012949228
Additional copies of this report are available for sale from the National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-
3313; http://www.nap.edu/.
Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
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National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
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achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of
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to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
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the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the Na-
tional Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and
the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest
are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL
EXPOSURE SCIENCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Members
KIRK R. SMITH (Chair), University of California, Berkeley, CA
PAUL J. LIOY (Vice Chair), University of Medicine and Dentistry of
New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ
TINA BAHADORI, American Chemistry Council, Washington, DC
(resigned March 2012)
TIMOTHY BUCKLEY, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH (resigned May 2012)
RICHARD T. DI GIULIO, Duke University, Durham, NC
J. PAUL GILMAN, Covanta Energy Corporation, Fairfield, NJ
MICHAEL JERRETT, University of California, Berkeley, CA
DEAN JONES, Emory University, Atlanta, GA (resigned June 2012)
PETROS KOUTRAKIS, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
THOMAS E. MCKONE, University of California, Berkeley, CA
JAMES T. ORIS, Miami University, Oxford, OH
AMANDA D. RODEWALD, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
SUSAN L. SANTOS, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey,
Piscataway, NJ
RICHARD SHARP, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
GINA SOLOMON, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, CA
JUSTIN G. TEEGUARDEN, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA
DUNCAN C. THOMAS, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
THOMAS G. THUNDAT, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
SACOBY M. WILSON, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
Staff
EILEEN N. ABT, Project Director
KEEGAN SAWYER, Program Officer (through September 2011)
KERI SCHAFFER, Research Associate
NORMAN GROSSBLATT, Senior Editor
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Manager, Technical Information Center
RADIAH ROSE, Manager, Editorial Projects
ORIN LUKE, Senior Program Assistant (through June 2011)
TAMARA DAWSON, Program Associate
Sponsor
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES
v
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BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Members
ROGENE F. HENDERSON (Chair), Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute,
Albuquerque, NM
PRAVEEN AMAR, Clean Air Task Force, Boston, MA
MICHAEL J. BRADLEY, M.J. Bradley & Associates, Concord, MA
JONATHAN Z. CANNON, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
GAIL CHARNLEY, HealthRisk Strategies, Washington, DC
FRANK W. DAVIS, University of California, Santa Barbara
RICHARD A. DENISON, Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, DC
CHARLES T. DRISCOLL, JR., Syracuse University, New York
H. CHRISTOPHER FREY, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
RICHARD M. GOLD, Holland & Knight, LLP, Washington, DC
LYNN R. GOLDMAN, George Washington University, Washington, DC
LINDA E. GREER, Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, DC
WILLIAM E. HALPERIN, University of Medicine and Dentistry of
New Jersey, Newark
PHILIP K. HOPKE, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY
HOWARD HU, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
SAMUEL KACEW, University of Ottawa, Ontario
ROGER E. KASPERSON, Clark University, Worcester, MA
THOMAS E. MCKONE, University of California, Berkeley
TERRY L. MEDLEY, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Wilmington, DE
JANA MILFORD, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder
FRANK O'DONNELL, Clean Air Watch, Washington, DC
RICHARD L. POIROT, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation,
Waterbury
KATHRYN G. SESSIONS, Health and Environmental Funders Network, Bethesda, MD
JOYCE S. TSUJI, Exponent Environmental Group, Bellevue, WA
Senior Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Scholar
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Officer for Environmental Studies
ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis
SUSAN N.J. MARTEL, Senior Program Officer for Toxicology
EILEEN N. ABT, Senior Program Officer
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Manager, Technical Information Center
RADIAH ROSE, Manager, Editorial Projects
vi
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OTHER REPORTS OF THE
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Science for Environmental Protection: The Road Ahead (2012)
A Research Strategy for Environmental, Health, and Safety Aspects of Engineered
Nanomaterials (2012)
Macondo WellDeepwater Horizon Blowout: Lessons for Improving Offshore
Drilling Safety (2012)
Feasibility of Using Mycoherbicides for Controlling Illicit Drug Crops (2011)
Improving Health in the United States: The Role of Health Impact
Assessment (2011)
A Risk-Characterization Framework for Decision-Making at the Food and
Drug Administration (2011)
Review of the Environmental Protection Agency's Draft IRIS Assessment
of Formaldehyde (2011)
Toxicity-Pathway-Based Risk Assessment: Preparing for Paradigm Change (2010)
The Use of Title 42 Authority at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2010)
Review of the Environmental Protection Agency's Draft IRIS Assessment
of Tetrachloroethylene (2010)
Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production
and Use (2009)
Contaminated Water Supplies at Camp Lejeune--Assessing Potential
Health Effects (2009)
Review of the Federal Strategy for Nanotechnology-Related Environmental,
Health, and Safety Research (2009)
Science and Decisions: Advancing Risk Assessment (2009)
Phthalates and Cumulative Risk Assessment: The Tasks Ahead (2008)
Estimating Mortality Risk Reduction and Economic Benefits from Controlling
Ozone Air Pollution (2008)
Respiratory Diseases Research at NIOSH (2008)
Evaluating Research Efficiency in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008)
Hydrology, Ecology, and Fishes of the Klamath River Basin (2008)
Applications of Toxicogenomic Technologies to Predictive Toxicology and Risk
Assessment (2007)
Models in Environmental Regulatory Decision Making (2007)
Toxicity Testing in the Twenty-first Century: A Vision and a Strategy (2007)
Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness (2007)
Environmental Impacts of Wind-Energy Projects (2007)
Scientific Review of the Proposed Risk Assessment Bulletin from the Office of
Management and Budget (2007)
Assessing the Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene: Key Scientific
Issues (2006)
New Source Review for Stationary Sources of Air Pollution (2006)
Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals (2006)
Health Risks from Dioxin and Related Compounds: Evaluation of the EPA
Reassessment (2006)
vii
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Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Scientific Review of EPA's Standards (2006)
State and Federal Standards for Mobile-Source Emissions (2006)
Superfund and Mining Megasites--Lessons from the Coeur d'Alene
River Basin (2005)
Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion (2005)
Air Quality Management in the United States (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2004)
Atlantic Salmon in Maine (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin (2004)
Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas
Development (2003)
Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations (2002)
Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002)
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (twelve
volumes, 2000-2012)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (2000)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (four volumes, 1998-2004)
The National Research Council's Committee on Toxicology: The First 50
Years (1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (five volumes, 1989-1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academies Press
(800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313
www.nap.edu
viii
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Preface
Over the last decade, advances in tools and technologies--sensor systems,
analytic methods, molecular technologies, computational tools, and bioinformat-
ics--have provided opportunities for improving the collection of exposure-
science information leading to the potential for better human health and ecosys-
tem protection. Recognizing the need for a prospective examination of exposure
science, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences asked the National Research Council to perform
an independent study to develop a long-range vision and a strategy for imple-
menting the vision over the next 20 years.
In this report, the Committee on Human and Environmental Exposure Sci-
ence in the 21st Century presents a conceptual framework for exposure science
and a vision for advancing exposure science in the 21st century. The committee
describes scientific and technologic advances needed to support the vision and
concludes with a discussion of the elements needed to realize it, including re-
search and tool development, transagency coordination, education, and engage-
ment of a broader stakeholder community.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures ap-
proved by the National Research Council Report Review Committee. The pur-
pose of the independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that
will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and
to ensure that the report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence,
and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manu-
script remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We
thank the following for their review of this report: Philip Landrigan, Mount Si-
nai School of Medicine; Jonathan Levy, Boston University School of Public
Health; Rachel Morello-Frosch, University of California, Berkeley; Michael
Newman, College of William & Mary; John Nuckols, JRN & Associates Envi-
ronmental Health Sciences; Sean Philpott, Union Graduate College; Stephen
Rappaport, University of California, Berkeley; Lawrence Reiter, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (retired); Joyce Tsuji, Exponent; Mark Utell, Univer-
ix
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x Preface
sity of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry; Craig Williamson, Miam
University; Edward Zellers, University of Michigan.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or
recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release.
The review of the report was overseen by the review coordinator, Joseph V.
Rodricks, ENVIRON, and the review monitor, Michael F. Goodchild, Univer-
sity of California, Santa Barbara. Appointed by the National Research Council,
they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of the
report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all
review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content
of the report rests entirely with the committee and the institution.
The committee gratefully acknowledges the following for making presen-
tations to the committee: Steven Bradbury, Helen Dawson, Sumit Gangwal,
Elaine Cohen Hubal, Bryan Hubbell, Edward Ohanian, Lawrence Reiter (re-
tired), Rita Schoeny, and Linda Sheldon, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; Harry Cullings, Radiation Effects Research Foundation; Michael Del-
larco, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; Otto Hän-
ninen and Matti Jantunen, Finland National Institute of Health and Welfare;
Aubrey Miller, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; Chris Por-
tier, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; and Craig Postlewaite, U.S.
Department of Defense.
The committee is also grateful for the assistance of National Research
Council staff in preparing this report. Staff members who contributed to the effort
are Eileen Abt, project director; James Reisa, director, Board on Environmental
Studies and Toxicology; Keegan Sawyer, program officer; Keri Schaffer, research
associate; Norman Grossblatt, senior editor; Mirsada Karalic-Loncarevic, man-
ager, Technical Information Center; Radiah Rose, manager, editorial projects;
Orin Luke, senior program assistant; and Tamara Dawson, program associate.
We especially thank the members of the committee for their efforts
throughout the development of this report.
Kirk R. Smith, Chair
Paul J. Lioy, Vice Chair
Committee on Human and
Environmental Exposure
Science in the 21st Century
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Contents
SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................3
1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................19
Background, 19
Defining the Scope of Exposure Science, 22
The Past Millennia, 24
Opportunities and Challenges: The New Millennium, 28
Roadmap, 31
References, 35
2 A VISION FOR EXPOSURE SCIENCE IN THE 21st CENTURY............42
References, 48
3 APPLICATIONS OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE .............................................50
Introduction, 50
Epidemiology, 50
Toxicology, 57
Environmental Regulation, 60
Environmental Planning, 67
Disaster Management, 75
Conclusions, 76
References, 79
4 DEMANDS FOR EXPOSURE SCIENCE.....................................................90
Introduction, 90
Health and Environmental Science Demands, 92
Market Demands, 97
Societal Demands, 99
Policy and Regulatory Demands, 100
Building Capacity to Meet Demands, 101
References, 101
xi
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xii Contents
5 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGIC ADVANCES ..................................106
Introduction, 106
Tracking Sources, Concentrations, and Receptors with
Geographic Information Technologies, 108
Ubiquitous Sensing For Individual and Ecologic Exposure Assessment, 117
Biomonitoring for Assessing Internal Exposures, 128
Models, Knowledge, and Decisions, 134
References, 140
6 PROMOTING AND SUSTAINING PUBLIC TRUST
IN EXPOSURE SCIENCE ...........................................................................154
Protecting Research Volunteers, 155
Promoting Public Trust, 157
Community Engagement and Stakeholder Participation, 157
Use of Community-Based Participatory Research, 158
Challenges Ahead, 161
Guiding Values: The Right to Learn, 163
Conclusions, 165
References, 166
7 REALIZING THE VISION ..........................................................................169
Introduction, 169
The Exposure Data Landscape, 171
Immediate Challenges: Chemical Evaluation and Risk Assessment, 174
Implementing the Vision, 176
Research Needs, 176
Transagency Coordination, 179
Enabling Resources, 179
Conclusions, 181
References, 182
APPENDIXES
A BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ON THE COMMITTEE ON
HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE SCIENCE IN
THE 21st CENTURY ....................................................................................184
B STATEMENT OF TASK ..............................................................................191
C CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY IN EXPOSURE SCIENCE ...........193
BOXES, FIGURES, AND TABLES
BOXES
1-1 Definition and Scope of Exposure Science, 20
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Contents xiii
1-2 Illustrations Demonstrating How the Degradation of the Ecosystems Due
to Human Activities Increases Exposures to Chemical and Biologic
Stressors, 33
3-1 Case Study of Exposure Assessment for the National Children's Study, 53
3-2 Case Study of the Hanford Environmental Dose-Reconstruction Project, 54
3-3 An Environment-Wide Association Study, 56
3-4 Value of Improved Exposure Estimates for Epidemiologic Studies, 57
3-5 Case Study of Perchlorate in Drinking Water, 63
3-6 Case Study of Chemicals in Breast Milk: Policy Action Based on
Exposure Data, 66
3-7 Health Impact Assessment of Mobile Sources in San Francisco, 68
3-8 Exposure to Multiple Stressors in a Large Lake Ecosystem, 72
3-9 Emergency Management After the Attack on the World Trade Center, 77
5-1 Evaluating the Reliability of Aerosol Optical Depth Against
Ground Observations, 110
5-2 Evaluation of MODIS 1 km Product, 110
5-3 Embedded Sensing of Traffic in Rome, 119
5-4 Ubiquitous Sensing of Physical Activity and Location, 119
5-5 Participatory Sensing, 121
5-6 Potential Application of omics and Exposure Data in
Personalized Medicine, 130
5-7 Global-Scale and Regional-Scale Models Used to Assess Human and
Ecologic Exposure Potential in Terms of Long-Range Transport Potential
and Persistence, 136
6-1 Case Study of Exposure Justice and Community Engagement: ReGenesis
in Spartanburg, SC, 159
FIGURES
S-1 Conceptual framework showing the core elements of exposure science
as related to humans and ecosystems, 6
S-2 Selected scientific and technologic advances for measuring and monitoring
considered in relation to the conceptual framework shown in Figure S-1, 8
1-1 The classic environmental-health continuum, 21
1-2 Core elements of exposure science, 24
1-3 An illustration of how exposures can be measured or modeled at different
levels of integration in space and time, from source to dose, and among
different human, biologic, and geographic systems, 25
1-4 Connections between ecosystem services and human-well being, 32
3-1 General schema of exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology, 51
3-2 Exposure to Multiple Stressors in Lake Tahoe, 74
4-1 The four major demands for exposure science, 92
5-1 Selected scientific and technologic advances considered in relation to
the conceptual framework, 109
5-2 Aerosol optical depth derived from MODIS data for the New
England region, 111
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xiv Contents
5-3 Example of a binary buffer overlay showing people likely to experience
traffic-related air-pollution exposure, 115
5-4 Map of a flood plain in the Netherlands showing secondary risk of poisoning
by cadmium in Little Owls developed using a combination of measured
cadmium concentrations, food web modeling, knowledge of foraging in
different habitats, and probabilistic risk assessment, 116
5-5 Output from a CalFit telephone showing the location and activity level
of volunteers in kilocalories per 10-second period in a pilot study in
Barcelona, Spain, 120
C-1 Another view of the source-to-outcome continuum for exposure science, 194
C-2 Core elements of exposure science, 195
TABLES
5-1 Available Methods and Their Utility for Ecologic Exposure Assessment, 133
