|
Items in cart [4] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 115
MARINE SEDIMENT TOXICITY TESTS
Richard C. Swartz
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ABSTRACT
Sediment toxicity tests have been developed on the basis
of virtually all levels of biological organization from sub-
cellular through model ecosystems. Rapid, cost-effective
techniques based on acute exposures are often used in
research and regulatory programs to determine the spatial
and temporal distribution of sediment toxicity, and the rela-
tive toxicity of individual chemicals and complex wastes
spiked into sediment. Sediment toxicity tests are part of
several comprehensive methods for generating sediment qual-
ity criteria. Major research needs include test methods for
chronic exposures, field validation of acute toxicity tests
and the geochemical integrity of test materials, the rela-
tion between toxicity and the bioavailability/partitioning
of contaminants in different sediment phases, models of toxi-
cological interactions between sediment contaminants, and
sediment wasteload allocation models.
INTRODUCTION
Marine pollution often results in the chemical contamination of the
seabed and detrimental effects on benthic communities. The initial
development of sediment toxicity tests in the early 1970s
increasing research and regulatory interest in methods of
haunch; c deli on (tannin anal R-~nn 1 971 Aim:: -t :;l
_
~ ~ ~ ) _ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ an_ r
reflected an
documenting
~ ~~ _ ~~ , _ ._, ~ ., 1974; Han-
son, 1974; Cardwell et al., 1976; Lee and Mariani, 1976~. The Ocean
Dumping Regulations promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in 1977 included sediment toxicity tests in the evaluation
of applications for dredged material disposal permits. Methods for
solid-phase bioassays to be used in conjunction with the Ocean Dumping
Regulations were published by EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(COE) in 1977 (U.S. EPA/COE, 1977~. Research on sediment toxicity
tests and their regulatory applications has expanded greatly since
1977. This paper reviews marine sediment toxicity tests with respect
to the variety of methods that are available, and their effectiveness,
relevance to remedial actions, and applications in research and regu-
latory programs.
115
r
OCR for page 116
116
SEDIMENT TOXICITY TESTS--A SUMMARY REVIEW
Sediment toxicity tests have been applied at virtually all levels
of biological organization ranging from inhibition of enzymatic acti-
vity at the subcellular level to alterations of the structure and func-
tion of macrobenthic assemblages in experimental ecosystems (Table 1~.
However, only a few of these methods are commonly used to assess
sediment toxicity. The original EPA/COE (1977) solid-phase bioassay
simulates a dredged material disposal operation in a 20 liter or larger
exposure chamber. A crustacean, infaunal bivalve, and infaunal
polychaete must be included among the test species. Twenty individuals
of each species are placed on a 3-cm deep layer of clean sediment,
allowed to acclimate for 48 hours, and then covered by a 1.5-cm deep
layer of test sediment. Controls are covered by a 1.5-cm layer of
clean sediment. Five replicates are prepared for the control and each
test sediment. The primary response criterion is survival after 10
days relative to controls. This procedure, or modifications of it, has
been used by COE to evaluate applications for dredged material disposal
permits.
The amphipod acute sediment toxicity test is technically well-
developed and widely applied, especially on the Pacific coast of the
United States. This method evolved from the EPA/COE (1977) bioassay
method after early research with the solid-phase test showed that amphi-
pods were consistently more sensitive to polluted sediment than other
major benthic taxa (Swartz et al., 1979~. The typical experimental
design for the amphipod test includes 5 replicates for each sediment
treatment. Each replicate consists of 20 individual amphipods placed
in a 1 liter beaker containing a 2-cm deep layer of test sediment and
825 ml of overlying water, at a salinity of 28 ppt (parts per thousand)
for marine tests. The exposure system is static, aerated, and main-
tained at a constant temperature, usually 15°C. At the initiation
of the test, the amphipods quickly swim to the bottom and burrow com-
pletely into the sediment. In the absence of stress, they remain bur-
ied during the 10-day exposure period. There are three response cri-
teria: mortality after 10 days, ability of survivors to bury in clean
sediment, and emergence of amphipods during the exposure. Typical con-
trol treatments include clean sediment from the amphipod collection
site, sediment with the same particle-size distribution as the test
material, carrier control for spiked chemicals (e.g., acetone), and a
positive response control based on the effects of a chemical with known
amphipod toxicity (e.g., cadmium). The method was originally developed
for the phoxocephalid amphipod, Rhepoxynius abronius, but has been
used with a variety of other marine, estuarine, and freshwater amphipod
genera including Eohaustorius, Corophium, Grandidierella, Ampelisca,
Hyalella, and Pontoporeia. Three detailed descriptions of the acute
amphipod test are available (EVS Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech
Inc., 1986; Swartz et al., 1985b; Reish and Lemay, 1988), and Sub-
committee E47.03 of the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) is presently adapting the procedure as an ASTM standard method.
The literature on the amphipod test includes interlaboratory (Me arns et
al., 1986), intermethod (Wil~iams et al. 9 1986), and interspecies
OCR for page 117
117
TABLE 1
Biological
organization Response criterion
Biochemistry Enzyme induction,
Microtox
Cell Chromosome damage
Development Larval
abnormalities
Physiology Respiration,
osmoregulation
Behavior
Burrowing, feed-
ing, sediment
and predator
avoidance
Reproduction Fertilization,
fecundity
References
Lee et al, 1979; Schiewe et al., 1985; Reichert
et al., 1985; Varanasi et al., 1985; E.V.S.
Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986;
Williams et al., 1986; Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986a; PTI
Environmental Services, 1988; Geisy et al., 1988.
E.~.S. Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech, Inc.,
1986; Chapman et al., 1982; Landolt and Kocan,
1984; Landolt et al., 1984; Long and Chapman, 1985;
Chapman, 1986
Hoss et al., 1974; Cardwell et al., 1976; E.~.S.
Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986;
Williams et al., 1986; Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985,
1986a; PTI Environmental Services, 1988; Long and
Chapman, 1985; Chapman and Morgan, 1983; Chapman et
al., 1987.
Chapman et al., 1982; Long and Chapman, 1985;
Chapman, 1986, 1987; Kehoe, 1983; Alden and Butt,
1987.
Chapman et al., 1987; Rubinstein, 1979; McGreer,
1979; Pearson et al., 1981, 1984; Olla and Bej da,
1983; Mohlenberg and Kiorboe, 1983; Phelps et
al., 1983; Olla et al., 1984, 1988; Oakden et al.,
1984a, 1984b; Swartz et al., 1985b, 1986b; Mearns
et al., 1986; Clark and Patrick, 1987;
Chapman et al., 1983, 1987 ; Nimmo et al., 1982 ;
Pathology Fin erosion Hargis et al., 1984
Individual Mortality
Population Life cycle, "r"
Community Structure, func-
tion, recoloniza-
Lee and Mariani, 1976; E.V.S. Consultants, Inc. and
Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986; Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985,
1986a, 1986b; PTI Environmental Service, 1988; Long
and Chapman, 1985; Chapman, 1986; Chapman et al.,
1987; Oakden, 1984a; Swartz et al., 1979, 1982,
1984, 1985a, 1985b, 1986a, 1986b; Mearns et al.,
1986; Shuba et al., 1978; Tsai et al., 1979;
Peddicord, 1980; Tatem, 1980; McLeese and Metcalfe,
1980; McLeese et al., 1982; Alden and Young, 1982;
Ott, 1986; Reish and Lemay, 1988; Breteler et al.,
1988; DeWitt et al., 1988.
Chapman et al., 1987; Chapman and Fink, 1984;
Tierjen and Lee 1984
Hansen' 1974; Tagatz and Tobia, 1978; Hansen
and Tagatz, 1980; Rubinstein et al., 1980;
Elmgren et al., 1980; Grassle et al., 1981; Oviatt
et al., 1982, 1984; Perez, 1983; Bauer et al., 1988
OCR for page 118
118
(Swartz et al., 1979) comparisons, field validation (Swartz et al.,
1982, 1985b, 1986a), field toxicity surveys (Chapman et al., 1982;
Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985, 1986b; Swartz et al., 1979, 1985b; Breteler et
al., 1988), bioassays of the toxicity of specific chemicals or complex
wastes (Reichert et al., 1985; Varanasi et al., 1985; Oakden et al.,
1984a, 1984b; Swartz et al., 1986, 1984), and development of sediment
quality criteria (Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986a; PTI Environmental Services,
1988; Long and Chapman, 1985; Chapman, 1986; Chapman et al., 1987~.
Two other frequently used sediment toxicity tests are based on the
development of bivalve larvae and inhibition of bacterial biolumines-
cence (M~crotox). These methods lack the direct ecological relevance
of the amphipod test, but may be equally or more sensitive to sediment
contaminants (Williams et al., 1986~. Descriptions of standard methods
are available for both tests (E.V. S . Consultants, Inc . and Tetra Tech,
Inc., 1986; Chapman and Morgan, 1983~. Both Pacific oysters (Crassos
tree gigas) and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) are used in the larval
test. Response criteria are survival and abnormal shell development of
larvae exposed for 48 hours to a suspension of 20 g, wet weight, of
sediment in 1 liter of filtered, sterilized, 28 ppt seawater. The
bivalve larvae test has been used primarily to document the distribu-
tion of sediment toxicity (Cardwell et al., 1976; Williams et al.,
1986; Long and Chapman, 1985; Chapman and Morgan, 1983; Chapman et al.,
1987; Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985) and to develop sediment quality criteria
(Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986a; PTI Environmental Services, 1988~. The Micro-
tox technique measures the inhibition of light emission by the lumines-
cent bacterium (Photobacterium phosphoreum) exposed for 15 minutes
to either organic or saline sediment extracts (E.V.S. Consultants, Inc.
and Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986~. Schiewe et al. (1985) demonstrated a sig-
nificant relation between the extract concentration causing a 50 per-
cent reduction in luminescence and the concentrations of classes of
organic chemicals. In comparative studies, the Microtox assay regis-
tered a larger proportion of positive responses than lethality tests
with Rhepaxynius abronius (Williams et al., 1986) or the freshwater
cladoceran, Daphnia magna (Giesy et al., 1988~. Because of uncer-
tainty about the bioavailability of extracted chemicals and the irrele-
vance of bacterial luminescence to benthic ecosystems, the greater sen-
sitivity of the Microtox test may reflect chemical contamination rather
than a potential for ecological degradation. Microtox has also been
used to examine the distribution of sediment toxicity (Schiewe et al.,
1985; Williams et al., 1986; Giesy et al., 1988) and to develop sedi-
ment quality criteria (Tetra Tech, Inc., 1986a; PTI Environmental Ser-
vices, 1988~. Experimental designs for sediment toxicity tests with
bivalve larvae and bacterial luminescence are similar to those des-
cribed above for acute amphipod tests.
Most of the sediment toxicity tests cited in Table 1 are not
routinely used in sediment toxicity surveys or permit application
reviews. These include methods to assess the effects of contaminated
sediment on complex biological phenomena including predator-prey
interactions (Pearson et al., 1981), the intrinsic rate of population
growth ("r") (Tietjen and Lee, 1984), recruitment of benthic assem-
blages from planktonic eggs and larvae (Hansen and Tagatz, 1980), and
OCR for page 119
119
nutrient flux in recovering benthic mesocosms (Oviatt et al., 1984~.
These more sophisticated techniques generally have a relatively high-
cost in time, expertise, and resources. Their utility lies in evaluat-
ing higher level ecological impacts when equivocal results are obtained
from the more standard toxicity tests.
EFFECTIVENESS OF SEDIMENT TOXICITY TESTS
There are some important limitations and advantages of sediment tox-
icity tests (Table 2~. Bioavailability and toxicity of sediment contam-
inants can be greatly altered by collection, handling, and storage of
sediment samples. Freezing and long storage can usually be avoided
(U.S. EPA/COE, 1977; E.~.S. Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech, Inc.,
1986; Swartz et al., 1985b). However, sediment samples are routinely
mixed, sieved, or extracted with poorly understood effects on geochem-
ical properties. Similarly, chemicals experimentally spiked into sedi-
ment in the laboratory may not be bioevailable in the same way as
"naturally" contaminated sediment. Research is needed to compare
sediment geochemistry in the field with that of sediments used in
toxicity tests .
TABLE 2 Limitations and Advantages of Sediment Toxicity Tests
Limitations
· Sediment collection, handling and storage may alter bioavailability.
· Results may reflect test conditions other than chemical toxicity.
· Route of exposure can be uncertain.
· Field validation is needed for sediment spiking methods.
· Few comparisons of methods and species.
· Few chronic methods.
· Inherent limitations of lab tests to predict ecological events.
· Tests applied to field samples can't discriminate effects of
individual chemicals.
Advantages
· Provide a direct benthic, biological impact assessment.
· Legal and scientific precedence; some standard methods .
· Tests applied to field samples reflect cumulative effects of all
contaminants.
· Tests applied to spiked chemicals provide unequivocal analysis of
causal relations.
· Sediment toxicity tests can be applied to all chemicals of concern.
· Only method available to examine contaminant interactions.
· Limited expertise or special equipment is required.
· Methods are rapid and cost- effective .
· Toxicity tests are amenable to field validation.
OCR for page 120
120
Toxic effects of natural sediment features beyond the tolerance
limits of test species can sometimes be confused with contaminant
effects. Information such as the salinity (Swartz et al., 1985b) and
sediment particle size requirements (Ott, 1986; DeWitt et al., 1988)
known for Rhepoxynius abronius should be developed for other test
species. The broad tolerance of some benthic taxa to natural sediment
features often extends to contaminant effects (Olla et al., 1988), and
is not a proper justification of the use of certain pelecypods and
polychaetes in sediment toxicity tests.
Uncertainty about the route of exposure can obfuscate toxicity
results, especially when epibenthic or pelagic organisms are used as
test species. Most burrowing species have direct exposures to sediment
particles and interstitial water. However, if the primary exposure is
through the overlying water, the degree of exposure is determined by
the mechanisms controlling transport across the sediment-water inter-
face. Relative toxicity may then be determined by factors such as
sediment bioturbation, rather than absolute contamination.
Although many sediment toxicity tests have been developed, there
are no standard chronic methods and few comparisons of species or
methods. EPA's Region 10 Office of Puget Sound, is currently comparing
the relative sensitivity of 13 acute and chronic test methods. Pre-
vious methods comparisons have shown a general concordance of acute
tests in identifying the most and least contaminated sediment samples,
although concordance is less at intermediate levels of contamination.
Different toxicity tests may be particularly sensitive to different
kinds of chemicals and, therefore, no single method will necessarily
meet all requirements of sediment toxicity surveys (Swartz et al.,
1985~. For these reasons, many investigations now employ several test
methods (Williams et al., 1986; Chapman et al., 1982, 1987; Long and
Chapman, 1985; Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985~.
There is an inherent inability of simple, acute laboratory tests to
predict or reflect ecological events. For example, in a field valida-
tion of the acute amphipod test along the sediment pollution gradient
on the Palos Verdes Shelf, off California, there was generally a good
correspondence between sediment contamination, toxicity, and benthic
community degradation (Swartz et al., 1985, 1986~. However, at one
site intermediate between areas of major and minor impacts, there were
substantial contamination and biological perturbations, but no acute
amphipod toxicity. These simple tests often are not sensitive to the
long-term events that effect chronic toxicity and ecological succes-
sion.
Sediment bioassays determine the cumulative toxicity of all chemi-
cals in samples collected from the field. This is a major advantage
over other analytical methods because many chemicals and their toxico-
logical interactions are unknown or unmeasured. Conversely, this sensi-
tivity to cumulative effects makes it impossible to attribute toxicity
to specific chemicals on the sole basis of bioassay results on field
sediments. Sediment toxicity tests should be part of a comprehensive
analysis of sediment quality that also includes chemical, geological,
and biological assessments (Swartz et al., 1985~. This is the basic
concept of the very effective benthic assessment method often called
OCR for page 121
121
the "Sediment Quality Triad" (Long and Chapman, 1985; Chapman, 1986;
Chapman et al., 1987; Swartz et al., 1982, 1985, 1986~.
Causal relations are unequivocal when toxicity tests are applied to
unpolluted sediment spiked with individual chemicals or complex wastes.
The spiking method can be applied to any chemical of concern. It also
offers the only experimental procedure for examining interactions
between sediment contaminants, an important problem that has not yet
received much attention (Oakden et al., 1984; Samolloff et al., 1983;
Plesha et al., 1988; Swartz et al., 19881.
A major advantage of most sediment toxicity tests is that they
require limited expertise or equipment and are rapid and cost-
effective. Bioassay results are usually available within two weeks of
sample collection. Analyses of macrobenthos and chemical samples from
the same survey typically require months for completion at much higher
costs for equipment and expertise. Toxicity tests can quickly and
inexpensively locate "hot spots" where more comprehensive assessments
can be focused.
APPLICATIONS OF SEDIMENT TOXICITY TESTS
Sediment toxicity tests have a variety of applications in research
and regulatory programs (Table 3~. They are used principally to deter-
mine patterns of toxicity in the field and quantify the toxicity of
materials spiked into sediment. Field surveys can examine the distri-
bution of toxicity in space, time, or depth in the sediment (Williams
et al., 1986; Giesy et al., 1988; Chapman et al., 1982, 1983, 1987;
Long and Chapman, 1985; Chapman, 1986; Chapman and Morgan, 1983; Tetra
Tech, Inc., 1985, 1986b; Alden and Butt, 1987; Tsai et al., 1979;
Swartz et al., 1982, 1985b, 1986a; Alden and Young, 1982; Breteler et
al., 1988; Chapman and Fink, 1984~. Relative sediment toxicity is
presently used in a variety of impact assessments, disposal permit
decisions, and monitoring programs. Wasteload allocation models that
combine sediment toxicity distributions with particle/contaminant
transport, deposition, and resuspension models are currently being
developed. Examination of the vertical distribution of toxicity in a
sediment core reflects the historic pattern of contamination in
depositional environments. Such data are particularly relevant to
remedial investigations that consider capping and "no action" alter-
natives. The toxicity of field-collected sediment is also used as a
research variable for comparisons with biological effects and geochemi-
cal sediment characteristics (Long and Chapman, 1985 ; Chapman, 1986 ;
Tetra Tech, Inc., 1985, 1986b; Chapman et al., 1987; Swartz et al.,
1982, 1985b, 1986a).
The sediment spiking method can be used to determine the toxicity
of individual chemicals or complex wastes like sewage effluents,
sludges and drilling fluids (Hansen, 1974; Reichert et al ., 1985;
Varanasi et al., 1985; Pearson et al., 1981; Olla and Bej da, 1983; Olla
et al., 1984, 1988; Oakden et al., 1984a, 1984b; Swartz et al., 1984,
1986b; McLeese and Metcalfe, 1980; McLeese et al., 1982; Ott, 1986;
Tagatz and Tobia, 1978; Bauer et al., 1988; Clark and Patrick, 1987;
OCR for page 122
122
Hansen and Tagatz , 1980 ; Rubinstein et al ., 1980 ; Elmgren et al ., 1980 ;
Gras sle et al., 1981; Oviatt et al., 1982, 1984; Perez, 1983~. Contam-
inated sediment can also be mixed into clean sediment to determine an
LC50 or other measure of effects (Swartz et al., 1989~. This proce-
dure can determine the relative toxicity of field-collected samples
that cause 100 percent mortality of test specimens. Layering, rather
than spiking, could be used to test the effectiveness of proposed sedi-
ment capping materials in experimental designs similar to the original
EPA/COE (1977) solid-phase bioassay.
TABLE 3
Tests
Research and Regulatory Applications of Sediment Toxicity
Field sediment
Spiked sediment
Sediment features
Research variable
Comprehensive sedi-
ment evaluation
me thods
Regulatory
applications
Spatial distribution of toxicity
Temporal distribution of toxicity
Depth distribution of toxicity
Dilution--LC50 in clean sediment
S ingle chemical
LC50
safe concentration
sediment quality criterion
Multiple chemicals
joint action
interaction models
Complex wastes
sewage
sludge
drilling fluids
dredged material
Salinity
Particle-size distribution
Organic carbon concentration
Relation to benthic community structure,
function, sediment conditions
Apparent Effects Threshold
Sediment Quality Triad
Dredged material permit decisions
Environmental impact assessment
Wasteload allocation
Remedial action alternatives
Sediment quality criteria
OCR for page 123
123
Sediment spiking provides a toxicological approach to the develop-
ment of numerical sediment quality criteria. Safe concentrations of
chemicals in sediment can be estimated from dose-response relations by
the same rationale used to generate water quality criteria. Sediment
toxicity tests are also part of other methods of developing sediment
quality criteria, (e.g., Apparent Effects Threshold [Tetra Tech, Inc.,
1986a, 1986b; PTI Environmental Services, 1988], Sediment Quality Triad
[Chapman, 19863), and are being used to validate criteria based on the
equilibrium partitioning method. There is a close agreement between
estimates of safe sediment concentrations of fluoranthene, after
organic carbon (OC) normalization, based on the methods of equilibrium
partitioning--1,330 ~g/g OC (using the chronic lowest observed effect
level tU.S. EPA, 19804~; the amphipod Apparent Effects Threshold--891
g/g OC tTetra Tech, Inc., 1986bJ; and fluoranthene sediment toxicity
tests--817 ~g/g OC (10-day LC50 for Rhepoxynius abronius; Swartz,
unpublished data). Preliminary research based on the toxicological
approach indicates that a simple additivity model can predict
interactions between sediment contaminants (Swartz et al., 1988~.
CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
Acute sediment toxicity tests are well-developed and have become an
integral part of benthic ecosystem impact assessments. There is a
broad range of test methods with a variety of biological response
criteria. Standard methods have been established for acute toxicity
tests that are rapid and cost-effective. They are principally applied
to determine spatial/temporal patterns of toxicity, and the relative
toxicity of individual chemicals and complex wastes spiked into clean
sediment. These methods are used in a variety of regulatory programs
including dredged material disposal permits, sediment quality criteria,
wasteload allocations, and remedial actions at sites of major sediment
contamination. Benthic impact assessments are most effective when
toxicity tests are combined with biological, chemical, and geological
indicators of sediment degradation.
Future research should focus on development of standard methods for
chronic sediment toxicity tests and field validation of acute sediment
toxicity tests. A toxicological data base should be established for
selected chemicals and sensitive infaunal species. Issues concerning
the bioavailability of contaminants in different sediment phases, and
the toxicological interactions of sediment contaminants must be re-
solved as part of the development of sediment quality criteria. Waste-
load allocation models should incorporate sediment quality criteria or
toxicity predictions with models of the transport, deposition and resus-
pension of sediment particles and contaminants.
OCR for page 124
124
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Janet Lamberson and Steve Ferraro for their reviews of this
manuscript. Contribution Number N-068, U.S. EPA Environmental Research
Laboratory, Narragansett, Rhode Island and Newport, Oregon.
REFERENCES
Alden, R. W., III, and A. J. Butt. 1987. Statistical classification of
the toxicity and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon contamination of
sediments from a highly industrialized seaport. Environ. Toxicol.
Chem. 6:673-684.
Alden, R. W., III and R. J. Young, Jr. 1982. Open ocean disposal of
materials dredged from a highly industrialized estuary: An eval-
uation of potential lethal effects. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
11:567-576.
Bauer, J. E., R. P. Kerr, M. F. Bautista, C. J. Decker, and D. C.
Capone. 1988. Stimulation of microbial activities and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon degradation in marine sediments inhabited by
Capi tel la capi tata . Mar. Environ. Res. 25:63-84.
Breteler, R. J., K. J. Scott, and S. P. Sheperd. 1988. Application of a
new sediment toxicity test using marine amphipods, Ampelisca
abdi ta, to San Francisco Bay sediments. Submitted to ASTM Twelfth
Symposium on Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment, Sparks,
Nevada, April 24-26, 1988.
Cardwell, R. D., C. E. Woelke, M. I. Carr, and E. W. Sanborn. 1976.
Sediment and elutriate toxicity to oyster larvae. In Proceedings of
the Special Conference on Dredging and its environmental effects,
P. A. Krenkel, J. Harrison and J. C. Burdick, III, eds., New York:
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Chapman, P. M. 1987. Oligochaete respiration as a measure of sediment
toxicity in Puget Sound, Washington. Hydrobiologia 155:249-258.
Chapman, P. M. 1986. Sediment quality criteria from the sediment qual-
ity triad: An example. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 5:957-964.
Chapman, P. M., R. N. Dexter, and E. R. Long. 1987. Synoptic measures
of sediment cont~mination, toxicity and infaunal community composi-
tion (the Sediment Quality Triad) in San Francisco Bay. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. 37:75-96.
Chapman, P. M. and R. Fink. 1984. Effects of Puget Sound sediments and
their elutriates on the life cycle of Capi tella capi tata . Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 33:451-459.
Chapman, P. M. and J. D. Morgan. 1983. Sediment bioassays with oyster
larvae. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 31:438-444.
Chapman, P. M., D. R. Munday, J. Morgan, R. Fink, R. M. Kocan, M. L.
Landolt, and R. N. Dexter. 1983. Survey of Biological Effects of
Toxicants upon Puget Sound Biota. II. Tests of Reproductive Impair-
ment. Technical Report NOS 102 OMS 1. Rockville, Md.: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Chapman, P. M., G. A. Vigers, M. A. Farrell, R. N. Dexter, E. A. Quin-
lan, R. M. Kocan, and M. Landolt. 1982. Survey of biological
OCR for page 125
125
effects of toxicants upon Puget Sound biota. 1. Broad-scale
toxicity survey . NOAA Technical Memorandum OMPA- 25 . Boulder, Co) o .
Clark, J. R. and J. M. Patrick, Jr. 1987. Toxicity of sediment-incorpor-
ated drilling fluids. Mar. Poll. Bull. 18:600-603.
DeWitt, T. H., G. R. Ditsworth, and R. C. Swartz. 1988. Effects of
natural sediment features on the phoxocephalid amphipod,
Rhepoxynius abronius : Implications for sediment toxicity
bioassays. Mar. Environ. Res. 25:99-124.
Elmgren , R . , G . A . Vargo , J . ~ . Grassle, J. P. Grassle, D. R. Heinle,
G. Langlois, and S. L. Vargo. 1980. Trophic interactions in experi-
mental marine ecosystems perturbed by oil. In Microcosms in Ecolog-
ical Research, Sympos ium Series 52. J . P . Giesy, Jr ., ed. Washing-
ton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. Pp. 779-800.
E.V.S. Consultants, Inc. and Tetra Tech, Inc. 1986. Recommended Proto-
cols for Conducting Laboratory Bioassays on Puget Sound Sediments.
Seattle, Wash.: E.~.S. Consultants, Inc.
Cannon, J. E. and A. M. Beeton. 1971. Procedures for determining the
effects of dredged sediments on biota-benthos viability and
sediment selectivity tests. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 43:392-398.
Giesy, J. P., R. L. Graney, J. L. Newsted, C. J. Rosiu, and A. Benda.
1988. Comparison of three sediment bioassay methods using Detroit
River sediments. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 7:483-498.
Grassle, J. F., R. Elmgren, and J. P. Grassle. 1981. Response of ben-
thic communities in MERL experimental ecosystems to low level
chronic additions of No. 2 fuel oil. Mar. Environ. Res. 4:279-297.
Hansen, D. J . 1974. Aroclor 1254: Effect on composition of developing
estuarine animal communities in the laboratory. Mar. Sci. 18:19-33.
Hansen, D. J. and M. E. Tagatz. 1980. A laboratory test for assessing
impacts of substances on developing communities of benthic estuar-
ine organisms. In Aquatic Toxicology, J. G. Eaton, P. R. Parrish,
and A. C. Hendricks, eds. STP 707. Philadelphia: American Society
for Testing and Materials. pp 40-57.
Hargis, W. J., Jr., M. H. Roberts, and D. E. Zwerner. 1984. Effects of
contaminated sediments and sediment-exposed effluent water on an
estuarine fish: Acute toxicity. Mar. Environ. Res. 14:337-354.
Hoss, D. E., L. C. Cos ton, and W. E. Schaaf. 1974. Effects of seawater
extracts of sediments from Charleston Harbor, SC, on larval
estuarine fishes. Estuar. Coastal. Mar. Sci. 2:323-328.
Kehoe, D. M. 1983. Effects of Grays Harbor estuary sediment on the
osmoregulatory ability of Coho Salmon smolts (Oncorhynchus
kisutch) . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 30:522-529.
Landolt, M. L. and R. M. Kocan. 1984. Lethal and sublethal effects of
marine sediment extracts on fish cells and chromosomes. Helgolander
Meersunters. 37:479-491.
Landolt, M. L., R. M. Kocan, and R. N. Dexter. 1984. Anaphase aberra-
tions in cultured fish cells as a bioassay of marine sediments.
Mar. Environ. Res. 14:497-498.
Lee, G. F. and G. M. Mariani. 1976. Evaluation of the significance of
waterway sediment-associated contaminants on water quality at the
dredged material disposal site. In Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard
Evaluation, F . L . Mayer and J . L . Hamelink, eds . ASTM STP 6 34 .
OCR for page 126
126
Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. Pp.
196-213.
Lee, R. F., S. C. Singer, K. R. Tenore, W. S. Gardner, and R. M. Phil-
pot. 1979. Detoxification system in polychaete worms: Importance
in the degradation of sediment hydrocarbons. In Marine Pollution:
Functional Responses, W. B. Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F. P. Thurberg
and F. J. Vernberg, eds. New York: Academic Press. Pp. 23-37.
Long, E. R. and P. M. Chapman. 1985. A sediment quality triad: Measures
of sediment contamination, toxicity, and infaunal community composi-
tion in Puget Sound. Mar. Poll. Bull. 16:405-41S.
McGreer, E. R. 1979. Sublethal effects of heavy metal contaminated
sediments on the bivalve Ma coma balthica (L.~. Mar. Poll. Bull.
10:259-262.
McLeese, D. W. and C. D. Metcalfe. 1980. Toxicities of eight organo-
chlorine compounds in sediment and seawater to Crangon
septemspinosa . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 25:921-928.
McLeese, D. W., L. E. Burridge, and J. Van Dinter. 1982. Toxicities of
five organochlorine compounds in water and sediment to Nereis
virens . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 28:216-220.
Mearns, A. J., R. C. Swartz, J. M. Cummins, P. A. Dinnel, P. Plesha,
and P. M. Chapman. 1986. Inter-laboratory comparison of a sediment
toxicity test using the marine amphipod, Rhepaxynius abronius.
Mar. Environ. Res. 18:13-37.
Mohlenberg, F. and T. Kiorboe. 1983. Burrowing and avoidance behaviour
in marine organisms exposed to pesticide-contaminated sediment.
Mar. Poll. Bull. 14:57-60.
Nimmo, D. R., T. L. Hamaker, E. Mathews, and W. T. Young. 1982. The
long-term effects of suspended particulates on survival and
reproduction of the mysid shrimp, Mysidopsis bahia, in the
laboratory. In Ecological Stress and the New York Bight: Science
and Management, G. F. Mayer, ed. Columbia, S.C.: Estuarine Research
Federation. Pp. 413-422.
Oakden, J. M., J. S. Oliver, and A. R. Flegal. 1984a. EDTA chelation
and zinc antagonism with cadmium in sediment: Effects on the
behavior and mortality of two infaunal amphipods. Mar. Biol.
84:125-130.
Oakden, J. M., J. S. Oliver, and A. R. Flegal. 1984b. Behavioral res-
ponses of a phoxocephalid amphipod to organic enrichment and trace
metals in sediment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 14:253-257.
Olla, B. L. and A. J. Bej da. 1983. Effects of oiled sediment on the
burrowing behaviour of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria.
Mar. Environ. Res. 9:183-193.
Olla, B. L., A. J. Bej da, A. L. Studholme, and W. H. Pearson. 1984.
Sublethal effects of oiled sediment on the sand worm, Nereis
(Neanthes) virens : Induced changes in burrowing and emergence.
Mar. Environ. Res. 13:121-139.
Olla, B. L., V. B. Estelle, R. C. Swartz, G. Braun, and A. L. Stud-
holme. 1988. Responses of polychaetes to cadmium-contaminated
sediment: Comparison of uptake and behavior. Environ. Toxicol.
Chem. 7:587-592.
Ott, F. S. 1986. Amphipod sediment bioassays: Effect of grain size, cad-
OCR for page 127
127
mium, methodology, and variations in animal sensitivity on interpre-
tation of experimental data. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Washing-
ton, Seattle.
Oviatt, C., J. Frithsen, J. Gearing, and P. Gearing. 1982. Low chronic
additions of No. 2 fuel oil: Chemical behavior' biological impact
and recovery in a simulated estuarine environment. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 9:121-136.
Oviatt, C. A., M. E. Q. Pilson, S. W. Nixon, J. B. Frithsen, D. T.
Rudnick, J. R. Kelly, J. F. Grassle, and J. P. Grassle. 1984.
Recovery of a polluted estuarine ecosystem: A mesocosm experiment.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 16:203-217.
Pearson, W. H., D. L. Woodruff, P. C. Sugarman, and B. L. Olla. 1984.
The burrowing behavior of sand lance, Ammodytes hexapterus :
Effects of oil-contaminated sediment. Mar. Environ. Res. 11:17-32.
Pearson, W. H., D. L. Woodruff, P. C. Sugarman and B. L. Olla. 1981.
Effects of oiled sediment on predation on the little neck clam,
Protothaca staminea, by the Dungeness crab, Cancer may, s-
ter. Estuar. Coastal Shelf Sci. 13:445-454.
Peddicord, R. K. 1980. Direct effects of suspended sediments on aquatic
organisms. In Contaminants and Sediments, Vol. 1, R. A. Baker, ed.
Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers. Pp. 501-536.
Perez, K. T. 1983. Environmental assessment of a phthalate ester, di-
(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), derived from a marine microcosm.
In Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment, W. E. Bishop, R. D.
Cardwell, and B. B. Heidolph, eds. STP 801. Philadelphia: American
Society for Testing and Materials. Pp. 180-191.
Plesha, P. D., J. E. Stein, M. H. Schiewe, B. B. McCain, and U. Varan-
asi. 1988. Toxicity o£ maribe sediments supplemented with model
mixtures of chlorinated and aromatic hydrocarbons to the infaunal
amphipod, Rhepoxynius abronius . In press. Mar. Environ. Res.
Phelps, H. L., J. T. Hardy, W. H. Pearson, and C. W. Apts. 1983. Clam
burrowing behavior: Inhibition by copper-enriched sediment. Mar.
Poll. Bull. 14:452-455.
PTI Environmental Services. 1988. Sediment Quality Values Refinement:
Tasks 3 and 5--1988 Update and Evaluation of the Puget Sound AET.
PTI Contract C717-01. Bellevue, Wash: PTI Environmental Services.
Reichert, W. L., B.-T. L. Eberhart, and U. Varanasi. 1985. Exposure of
two species of deposit-feeding amphipods to sediment associated
[3H]Benzota~pyrene: uptake, metabolism and covalent binding
to tissue macromolecules. Aquat. Toxicol. 6:45-56.
Reish, D. J. and J. A. Lemay. 1988. Bioassay manual for dredged mater-
ials. Contract DACW-09-83R-005. Los Angeles: U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.
Rubinstein, N. I. 1979. A benthic bioassay using time-lapse photography
to measure the effect of toxicants on the feeding behavior of
lugworms (Polychaeta: Arenicol idae) . In Marine Pollution:
Functional Responses, W. B . Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F. P . Thurberg,
and F. J. Vernberg, eds. New York: Academic Press. Pp. 341-351.
Rubinstein, N . I ., C . N . D 'Asaro , C . Sommers , and F . G . Wilkes . 1980 .
The effects of contaminated sediments on representative estuarine
species and developing benthic communities. In Contaminants and
OCR for page 128
128
Sediments, Vol. 1, R. A. Baker, ed. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science
Pub. Pp. 445-461.
Samolloff, M. R., J. Bell, D. A. Birkholz, G. R. B. Webster, E. G.
Arnott, R. Pulak, and A. Madrid. 1983. Combined bioassay-chemical
fractionation scheme for the determination and ranking of toxic
chemicals in sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17:329-334.
Schiewe, M. H., E. G. Hawk, D. I. Actor, and M. M. Krahn. 1985. Use of
bacterial bioluminescence assay to assess toxicity of contaminated
marine sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42:1244-1248.
Shuba, P. J., H. E. Tatem, and J. H. Carroll. 1978. Biological Assess-
ment Methods to Predict the Impact of Open-water Disposal of
Dredged Material. Technical Report D-78-50. Vicksburg, Miss.: U.S.
Army Waterways Experiment Station.
Swartz, R. C., F. A. Cole, D. W. Schults, and W. A. DeBen. 1986a. Eco-
logical changes on the Palos Verdes Shelf near a large sewage
outfall: 1980-1983. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 31:1-13.
Swartz, R. C., W. A. DeBen, and F. A. Cole. 1979. A bioassay for the
toxicity of sediment to the marine macrobenthos. J. Water Poll.
Control Fed. 51:944-950.
Swartz, R. C., W. A. DeBen, K. A. Sercu, and J. O. Lamberson. 1982.
Sediment toxicity and the distribution of amphipods in Commencement
Bay, Washington, USA. Mar. Poll. Bull. 13:359-364.
Swartz, R. C., G. R. Ditsworth, D. W. Schults, and J. O. Lamberson.
1986b. Sediment toxicity to a marine infaunal amphipod: Cadmium and
its interaction with sewage sludge. Mar. Environ. Res. 18:133-153.
Swartz, R. C., P. F. Kemp, D. W. Schults, G. R. Ditsworth, and R. J.
Ozretich. 1989. Toxicity of sediment from Eagle Harbor, Washington
to the infaunal Pmphipod, Rhepaxynius abronius. In press.
Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 8~3~.
Swartz, R. C., P. F. Kemp, D. W. Schults, and J. O. Lamberson. 1988.
Effects of mixtures of sediment contaminants on the marine infaunal
amphipod, Rhepoxynius abronius. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 7:1013-
1020.
Swartz, R. C.' D. W. Schults, G. R. Ditsworth, and W. A. DeBen. 1984.
Toxicity of sewage sludge to Rhepoxynius abronius, a marine ben-
thic amphipod. Arch. Environ. Contamination Toxicol. 13:207-216.
Swartz, R. C., D. U. Schults, G. R. Ditsworth, W. A. DeBen, and F. A.
Cole. 1985a. Phoxocephalid amphipod bioassay for marine sediment
toxicity. In Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: Proceedings
of the Seventh Annual Symposium, R. D. Cardwell, R. Purdy, and R.
C. Bahner, eds. STP 854. Philadephia: American Society for Testing
and Materials. Pp. 284-307.
Swartz, R. C., D. W. Schults, G. R. Ditsworth, W. A. DeBen, and F. A.
Cole. 1985b. Sediment toxicity, contamination, and macrobenthic
communities near a large sewage outfall. In Validation and Predict-
ability of Laboratory Methods for Assessing the Fate and Effects of
Contaminants in Aquatic Ecosystems, T. P. Boyle, ed. STP 865.
Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. Pp.
152-175.
Tagatz, M. E. and M. Tobia. 1978. Effects of barite (BaS04) on develop-
ment of estuarine communities. Estuar. Coastal Mar. Sci. 7:401-407
OCR for page 129
129
Tatem, H. E. 1980. Exposure of benthic and epibenthic estuarine animals
to mercury and contaminated sediment. In Contaminants and Sedi-
ments, Vol. 1, R. A. Baker, ed. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science
Publishers. Pp. 537-549.
Tetra Tech, Inc. 1986a. Development of Sediment Quality Values for
Puget Sound. DACW67-85-0029, Work Order OOOlC, TC3090-02; Task 6
Final Report . Bellewe , Wash .: Tetra Tech, Inc .
Tetra Tech, Inc. 1986b. Eagle Harbor preliminary investigation. Final
Report EGHB - 2, TC-3025-03. Belle w e, Wash.: Tetra Tech, Inc.
Tetra Tech, Inc . 1985. Commencement Bay Nearshore/Tideflats Remedial
Investigation. TC-3752, Final Report. EPA-910/9-8S-134b. Belle w e.
., Inc.
,, _ ~ _ _ ,
lo
Wash.: Tetra Tech
Tietjen, J. H. and J. J. Lee. 1984. The use of free-living nematodes as
a bioassay for estuarine sediments. Mar. Environ. Res. 11:233-251.
To: 4; ~ ~
, _., J. Welch, K. Chang, J. Shaefer, and A. I. cron~n. tow.
Bioassay of Baltimore Harbor sediments. Estuaries 2:141-153.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Water Quality Criteria for
Fluoranthene. Washington, D.C.: U. S. EPA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
1977. Ecological Evaluation of Proposed Discharge of Dredged Mater-
ial into Ocean Waters. Vicksburg, Miss.: U. S. Army Engineer Water-
ways Experiment Station.
Varanasi, U., W. L. Reichert, J. E. Stein, D. W. Brown, and H. R. San-
born. 1985. Bioavailability and biotransformation of aromatic hydro-
carbons in benthic organisms exposed to sediment from an urban estu-
ary. Environ. Sci. Tech.. 19:836-841.
Williams, L. G., P. M. Chapman and T. C. Ginn. 1986. A comparative eval-
uation of sediment toxicity using bacterial luminescence, oyster em-
bryo, and amphipod sediment bioassays. Mar. Environ. Res. l9:
225-249.
.
OCR for page 130
Representative terms from entire chapter:
toxicity tests
