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OCR for page 166
PREDICTING THE DISPERSION AND FATE OF
CONTAMINATED MARINE SEDIMENTS
Y. Peter Sheng
University of Florida
ABSTRACT
In order to select the proper remedial action
agement strategy to clean up a contaminated marine
is essential to be able to predict the dispersion and fate
of contaminated marine sediments both under existing condi-
tions and following a variety of proposed remedial actions.
This paper reviews our current understanding and predictive
ability of the dominant processes controlling the dispersion
and fate of contaminated marine sediments. While it is pos-
sible to predict the circulation and wave fields and turbu-
lent mixing in marine environments, predictive ability is
lacking for the other sediment dispersion processes. In par-
ticular, due to the lack of reliable and comprehensive field
data, much of our understanding of erosion/resuspension and
deposition processes has been obtained from limited labora-
tory studies which contain many simplifying empirical assump-
tions. Extrapolation of these empirical process models to
field application requires excessive amount of data for cali-
bratton. Further field-based research is urgently needed to
advance our understanding of erosion, deposition, and floccu-
lation processes.
and man-
site. it
INTRODUCTION
Marine sediments are the sinks to a variety of contaminants (e.g.,
heavy metals and toxic chemicals) and nutrients (e.g., phosphorus and
nitrogen) from industrial, agricultural, and municipal discharges.
These contaminants, both in particulate and dissolved forms, may sub-
sequently reenter the water column due to resuspension of sediments,
while the dissolved form may also be diffused into the water column.
Once in the water column, contaminants may be transported by the three-
dimensional turbulent flow field away from the contaminated site while
adsorbed onto the fine sediment particles
~ _ _
Thus' in order to quanti-
cactve~y assess One tong-term rate or contaminants at a contaminated
marine site (e.g., New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts and Puget Sound,
Washington), it is essential to be able to perform a mass balance study
for the fine sediments within the water body. Basically, this means
166
OCR for page 167
167
that we must be able to monitor or predict the long-term dispersion of
sediments and contaminants within a large water body. Moreover, in
order to assess the feasibility of a proposed remedial action (e.g.,
dredging or capping), it is necessary to be able to predict the impact
of such action on the long-term fate of contaminants.
Due to the complexity of the sediment/contaminant dispersion pro-
cesses and the tremendous difficulties and costs of comprehensive field
measurements, long-term monitoring at contaminated marine sites is
usually not done. Hence, it is extremely important to develop predic-
tive capabilities of sediment/contaminant dispersion processes. This
paper provides a brief review on our current understanding of the var-
ious processes controlling sediment dispersion. The difficulties of
comprehensive field studies and the deficiencies of some laboratory
studies are discussed. The use of comprehensive models to assist the
quantification of sediment dispersion processes is illustrated with a
brief discussion of the laboratory studies of erosion and deposition
using rotating annul). Uncertainties in model parameters are discussed
throughout the paper. Recommendations for further research are given
at the end.
SEDIMENT DISPERSION PROCESSES
As shown in Figure 1, the dominant sediment dispersion processes in
marine environments include advection, turbulent mixing, flocculation
and settling, erosion/resuspension, and deposition (Sheng, 1986a,
1987).
Mathematically, a mass balance study for sediments within a water
body as shown in Figure 1 is equivalent to solving the following mass
conservation equation for suspended sediment concentration:
aC + aUc + auC + 8(W+ws~c _ a (AH ~~) + ~ (AH~) (~)
+ a `4,aC,
where C is the suspended sediment concentration, (u,v,w) is the three-
dimensional flow velocities in the (x,y,z) directions, t is the time,
Us is a settling velocity for sediment particles, and AH and ~
are the horizontal and vertical turbulent eddy diffusivities. Assump-
tions have been made that sediment particles are of similar shapes and
sufficiently small and uniform sizes such that they more or less follow
the turbulent eddy motions. Assuming the three-dimensional flow field
is known, the above equation can be solved in conjunction with the
following boundary conditions:
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168
WED
RIVER LOADING WAVES ~ TIDES
FRESH ~ ---- .
WATER
FIGURE 1 Dominant processes
controlling sediment dispersion
in an estuarine environment.
~ .__ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ . ~
, TURBULENT - A/
- - 1FLOCCULATION r MIXING
N:N —t SETTLING ~
\ ~ 7 EROSION . ~ ADVECTlON
~ ~ DEPOSltlON RESUSPENSION ~
~ ~ ~, ~
~ ,
4
SEDIMENTS ~ BENTHOS
TIDES
Lo
SALT
WATER
f -wsC + ~ ~z 0 @ z = ((x,y,t)
f - -wsC + ~6 = D - E @ z = -h(x,y,t) (2)
C = C(x,y,t) @ Lateral Boundaries
where f represents a net vertical flux of sediments at the free sur-
face, ((x,y,t), or the bottom, -h~x,y,t), D is the deposition, and
E is the erosion or resuspension. Both D and E depend on hydrodynamic
and sedimentary parameters, and may vary significantly with space and
time.
ADVECTION
The advection process is governed by the flow field of (u,v,w),
which is generally three-dimensional, time-dependent, and turbulent.
In estuarine environments such as Puget Sound, New Bedford Harbor, and
Chesapeake Bay, the flow field is driven by tide, wind, and density
gradient. Although much research is still needed to understand the
hydrodynamic processes, our current understanding on the estuarine
circulation and advection process is much better compared to what we
know about the other sediment dispersion processes.
Numerous estuarine hydrodynamic and dispersion studies have been
performed in the major estuaries in the United States and other coun-
tries. The more recent studies have recognized the importance of the
three-dimensional aspects of the flow field and their effects on the
dispersion (e.g., Sheng, 1983; Byrne et al., 1987; Sheng, 1988a). The
formation of turbidity maxima (e.g., Dyer, 1986) due to tidal residual
circulation and formation of salt wedge, has also been the topic of num-
erous studies. Recent reviews of available multidimensional numerical
models of estuarine hydrodynamics can be found in Sheng (1986b) and
Nihoul and Jamart (1987~. It should be noted that generalized curvi-
linear grid models are presently being developed to simulate the long-
term circulation in estuaries with complex bathymetry and geometry.
OCR for page 169
169
TURBULENT MIXING
Turbulence in marine environments can be transported across the
air-sea interface by wind-induced mixing and breaking of surface
waves. It can also be generated due to breaking of internal waves,
shearing motion at the bottom, and unstable stratification, etc. In
shallow estuarine environments, turbulence may exist over the entire
water column, including the bottom boundary layer and the surface
boundary layer to enhance the mixing of various materials.
Turbulent transport within the bottom boundary layer plays the
important roles in affecting sediment erosion and deposition, while
turbulent mixing throughout the water column can affect the floccu-
lation and,settling of sediment particles . The transport of turbulence
within a water body, however, is very complex and cannot be accurately
described in terms of a simple "diffusion" process, which is appropri-
ate for the laminar mixing.
The accurate description of turbulent transport processes (produc-
tion, advection, damping, diffusion, and dissipation, etc.) is of ut-
most importance for describing the large-scale circulation as well as
the boundary layer dynamics, which can affect the sediment dispersions.
A review of the turbulence models suitable for estuarine applications
can be found in Sheng (1986b).
It is presently possible to simulate the turbulent transport in bot-
tom boundary layers driven by current, wave, current with wave, and in
the presence of vegetation canopy, density stratification, and rough-
ness features. However, turbulent transport in the immediate vicinity
of large bottom roughness features and in the near-field of a dredged
material disposal plume is fully three- dimens tonal, highly random, and
very complex, and hence still not well understood.
FLOCCULATION AND SETTLING
Marine sediments often contain particles of various sizes ranging
from the submicron clay particles to the large floes or sand particles
of hundreds of microns. Flocs are formed as the fine-grained (d < 60
~m) sediment particles are brought into frequent collisions by the
turbulent shearing motion and differential settling, and if there is
sufficient ionic strength in the water to render the suspended sediment
particles cohesive. Larger floes possess weaker strength and may be
broken up by increasing turbulent shear. However, little is known quan-
titatively about the flocculation process and its dependence on numer-
ous physical and chemical properties of the sediment, the fluid, and
the flow.
While flocculation can lead to orders of magnitude increase in
settling velocity of sediment particles, feeding activities of benthos
can also produce larger particles and settling velocity. Furthermore,
the settling velocity generally increases with the concentration of sus-
pended sediment particles until the hindered settling starts to reduce
the settling velocity (Krone, 1962~. At the present time, settling
velocity of sediment particles is generally determined in laboratory
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170
f
and there exists no
predictive model of settling velocity.
settling velocity Ws in Eq. (l) is generally treated as a tuning
parameter, with values reported in literature varying by more than two
orders of magnitude.
EROSION/RESUSPENSION AND DEPOSITION
Hence, the
Erosion or resuspension is the process by which the surfacial layer
of sediments is removed from the bottom sediments due to increase in
hydrodynamic stress and turbulent intensity and/or weakening of sedi-
ment resistance. As such, the erosion process depends on the hydrody-
n~mic forces as well as everything that affects the strength of bottom
sediments. Deposition, on the other hand, is the process by which the
suspended sediment particles arrive at the bottom. Thus, the deposi-
tion process depends only on the hydrodynamic process and the proper-
ties of suspended sediments. Comprehensive field data are needed in
order to derive an erosion model and a deposition model for application
with Eq. (l).
Our understanding of the erosion and deposition processes, however,
has been rather qualitative and limited due to the complexity of the
~ ~ ~ in Figure
a well-
a typical
exchange processes at the sediment-water interface. As shown
2, a relatively clear water column over bottom sediments with
defined sediment-water interface has been regarded by many as
z(m)
T
,.'oo
1
r
1~2
L
FIGURE 2 Vertical distribution of
flow and sediment in an idealized
estuarine environment.
1
WAVES ~ ODES
-
I U
AIR
C;
\
WATER
COLUMN
BOTTOM
80UNDARY
LAYER
(BBL)
BED
OCR for page 171
171
z(m) WED
rim
(_ j ~ ~ ~ _ | SeDIMtNT
~1 STATIONARY ~ FLUID MUD
A__.________
AIR
/
WATER
COLUMN
a___.___
BOTTOM
BOUNDARY
LAYER
(SOL)
\ CONSOLIDATING
\ BED
~ i_ ~
PERMANENT
BED
FIGURE 3 Vertical distribution of flow and sediment in a more
realistic estuarine environment.
situation for studying erosion and deposition. In realistic estuarine
environments, however, relatively high-concentration sediment layers
may exist over the consolidating and the permanent beds, with a loosely
defined sediment-water interface and the presence of benthos (Figure
39. It is clear that comprehensive field monitoring in such an envi-
ronment presents tremendous difficulties. Ideally, we would like to
measure the vertical profiles of all the following parameters within
the bottom boundary layer and the surficial sediments: mean velocity,
turbulence, salinity, temperature, suspended sediment concentration,
density, size distribution, settling velocity, benthos, pore pressure,
and sediment composition.
Even in the absence of any suspended sediments, it is difficult to
measure the mean flow and turbulence in the vicinity of the bed where
significant vertical variation in flow quantities exists. Field meas-
urement using two-axis submersible LDV failed to capture the wave boun-
dary layer even at 7 cm above the bed (Agrawal et al., 1988~. In spite
OCR for page 172
172
of the fine-scale flow structure, researchers typically rely on mean
flow measured at 1 m above the bottom to calculate a turbulent bottom
stress using the law of the wall (e.g., Grant et al., 1984~. This
method may give erroneous results in the presence of large roughness
features, strong waves, and significant stratification. While
measurement of turbidity and optical scattering at selected locations
can be obtained with existing instruments, the accurate determination
of suspended sediment concentration and particle size distribution is
still unresolved and remains the topic of many researchers.
Due to the difficulties of field measurements, erosion and depo-
sition processes have been studied in laboratory using rotating annul)
(Figure 4~. A critical review of sediment studies using rotating annu-
li was recently given by Sheng (1988b). Deficiencies in such labora-
tory studies include the following:
1. Scaling problem--the small sizes of the rotating annul) (d ~ 1
m) makes it very difficult to generate fully rough turbulent
flow, which is often encountered in the field.
2. Secondary flow problem--significant secondary flow (Figure 5) in
rotating annul) (with rotating top and/or bottom) alters bottom
friction and sediment dispersion patterns.
3. Turbulence damping problem--significant vertical gradient of sus-
pended sediment concentration near the bottom can damp turbu-
lence and reduce the amount of sediment erosion (Sheng and Vil-
laret, 1988~.
4. Bioturbation problem--feeding activities of benthos can affect
the sediment erosion and deposition, but the extent varies sig-
nificantly with time and location (McCall and Trevesz, 1982~.
Existing laboratory-based models of sediment erosion and deposition
generally neglected the above problems and, although capable of repro-
ducing the particular laboatory experiments, may produce large errors
when extrapolated to a new field application.
L r_ ,1
d
OCR for page 173
~ l
/ ~ ~
t I - '<15~7
~ it t:///~:
r = rj \ >:
~J
r = rO
/
~ _~_L j I
~ I
i'J ,
/: Fixed
73
l A
/i
d
/
, ~
it/
r- r
(l)~
r = rO
_ ._
-
/
FIGURE 5 Left: flow patterns and particle trajectory in a rotating
annulus with a rotating top. Right: flow patterns in the azimuthal and
radial planes of a rotating annulus with a rotating top and bottom.
The laboratory-based erosion models are empirical, site-specific,
and can vary by several orders of magnitude, as is shown in Figure 6
(Lavelle et al., 1983) which compares 10 erosion models compiled in the
form of E = a|~|0 where r is the dimensionless bottom stress. Curve
is determined from Puget Sound field data by Lavelle et al., curves 3
and 4 are determined from laboratory experiments of Lake Erie sediments
(Sheng and Lick, 1979), while curves 9 and 10 are determined from labor-
atory experiments of San Francisco mud (Partheniades, 1965~.
Recently, comprehensive mathematical models have been used to quan-
tify some of the deficiencies of the laboratory sediment experiments.
For example, Sheng (1988a) used an integral boundary layer formula to
calculate the secondary flow within a rotating annulus (Sheng and Lick,
1979) and found the radial flow to be 20 to 50 percent of the azimuthal
flow. In addition, the law of the wall was modified to include the
effect of a radial pressure gradient to allow the calculation of the
vertical profile of radial and azimuthal velocities. Sheng and Vil-
laret (1988) developed a simplified second-order closure model to inves-
tigate the effect of sediment concentration gradient on the flow. They
found that erosion models developed without considering such effect can
cause very significant error in the prediction of suspended sediment
concentration. In some cases, erosion may stop because the turbulent
stress becomes significantly reduced by the concentration gradient.
The deposition is treated as a separate process in Sheng and Lick
(1979) and Sheng (1986a), which derived a rigorous formula for deposi-
tion velocity. Thus, erosion and deposition may be allowed to occur at
the same time. Krone (1962) considered the erosion and deposition to-
gether, however, and defined a critical stress for net erosion
OCR for page 174
174
5
-6-
_
11J
0 7-
cr
o
8
FIGURE 6 Various models of
sediment erosion. SOURCE:
Lavelle et al., 1983.
/ o/
it;
,10
O 1 2
10910T (dYneS/Cm2)
(rce) and a critical stress for net deposition (red) Although
Tcewas assumed to be greater than ~cd, both must be prescribed
empirically for each study. Teeter (1988) found the deposition of
New Bedford sediments varied by a factor of 256.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A brief review of our understanding of the dominant processes of
sediment dispersion has been given here. Presently there are suffi-
cient understanding and predictive capabilities of the advection and
turbulent mixing processes in marine environments. However, our under-
standing of the processes of flocculation, settling, erosion, deposi-
tion, and bed evolution is rather limited. Existing models of these
processes are primarily based on data from laboratory experiments,
which often contain limiting simplifying assumptions, and hence are
generally site-specific and contain large uncertainties for general
application.
Extrapolation of these empirical models to new field application
may lead to large errors. It is thus extremely important to develop
mechanistic process models (flocculation model, erosion and deposition
model, and bed model) using comprehensive field data. These models can
then be combined with the circulation model, wave model, and bottom
boundary layer model to produce an overall sediment dispersion model
(Figure 7), which may then be used for field validation and mass-
balance predictions. Unless the process models have been validated by
field data, the overall sediment dispersion model cannot be expected to
produce reliable "prediction."
Research should be carried out in the following two areas:
OCR for page 175
175
~ .
CIRCULATION
MODEL
d , . -, 1
_ .
WAVE
MODEL
LAB and
FIELD
STUDIES I
ADYECTION |
. MIXING
BBL _ BOTTOM
MODEL —TURBULENCE . L
BOTTOM
CURRENT 1
1
BOTTOM
ORBITAL
CURRENT
MODEL ~ | EVOLUTION 1— BOTTOM l
.
_ ~
EROSION and
DEPOSITION
MODEL
.
FLOCCULATION
MODEL
·1
FIGURE 7 Framework of a sediment dispersion model.
SEDIMENT
DISPERSION
MODEL
FLOCCULATION I
arm
_
SETTLING
1 . Re - examination and improvement of exis tiny laboratory -based
models of sediment dispersion processes: comprehensive flow and
sediment data should be collected in rotating annul) and syn-
thesized to allow the determination of less empirical models. A
second-order closure model of turbulent transport can be used to
simulate the complete flow field withing the rotating annul).
2. A comprehensive field program at a contaminated marine site to
allow monitoring of the extent of contamination and to allow
development of field-based models of sediment dispersion pro-
cesses: due to the availability of more advanced instrumentation
and modeling technique,
this study should yield results which
are much more useful than previously possible under the DMRP
program.
Due to the large uncertainties contained in the various parameters
(e.g., size distribution, settling velocity, and bottom sediment distri
button, etc.) appearing in a sediment dispersion model, it is important
to perform an uncertainty analysis for any sediment mass balance study.
Rather than treating the various model parameters as adj ustable tuning
parameters to achieve a single "best fit" with limited field data, it
is more reasonable to attempt to predict the mean value as well as the
variance ~ or uncertainty) of the sediment/contaminant concentration
distribution in marine environments.
-
OCR for page 176
176
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Support the from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Coopera-
tive Agreement AERL-87-01, with Dr. Steve C. McCutcheon as the Scienti-
fic Officer, is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Agrawal, Y. C., D. G. Aubrey, and F. Dias. 1988. Field Observations
of the coastal bottom boundary layer under surface gravity waves.
Proc. Conf. App. Laser Anemometry to Fluid Dynamics, Lisbon, July
11-14, 1988.
Byrne, R. J., A. Y. Kuo, R. L. Mann, J. M. Brubaker, E. P. Ruzecki,
P. V. Hyer, R. J. Diaz, and J.H. Posenau. 1987. Newport Island: An
Evaluation of Potential Impacts on Marine Resources of the Lower
James River and Hampton Roads. Special Report in Applied Marine
Science and Ocean Engineering No. 283. Gloucester Point, Va.:
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary.
Dyer, K. R. 1986. Coastal and Estuarine Sediment Dynamics. New York:
John Wiley & Sons. 342 pp.
Grant, W. D., A. J. Williams, and S. Glenn. 1984. Bottom stress esti-
mates and their prediction on the northern California continental
shelf during CODE-1. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 14:506.
Krone, R. B. 1962. Flume Studies in the Transport of Sediment in Estuar-
ine Shoaling Processes. Hydraulics Engineering Laboratory Report.
Berkeley: University of California.
Lavelle, J. W., H. O. Mofjeld, and E. T. Baker. 1983. An In situ Ero-
sion Rate for a Fine-Grained Marine Sediment. NOAA/ERL PMEL Con-
tribution Number 654. Washington, D.C.: National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration.
McCall, P. L. and M. Trevesz. 1982. Effects of benthos on physical pro-
perties of freshwater sediments. In Animal-Sediment Relations,
P. L. McCall and M. J. Trevesz, eds. New York: Plenum Press. Pp.
105-176.
Nihoul, J. C. J. and B. Jamart. 1987. Three-dimensional Models of
Marine and Estuarine Dynamics. London: Elsevier.
Partheniades, E. 1965. Erosion and deposition of cohesive soils. J.
Hyd. Div. ASCE, 91(HY1):105-138.
Sheng, Y. P. 1988a. Curvilinear-grid model for estuarine and coastal
hydrodynamics. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on
Coastal Engineering, Spain, June, 1988. New York: ASCE (in press).
Sheng, Y. P. 1988b. Consideration of flow in rotating annul) for
sediment erosion and deposition studies. To be published in J.
Coastal Research. In Press.
Sheng, Y. P. 1987. Numerical modeling of estuarine hydrodynamics and
dispersion of cohesive sediments. In Sedimendation Control to
Reduce Maintenance Dredging of Navigational Facilities in Estuar-
ies. Washington, D.C.: Marine Board, National Research Council. Pp.
94-117.
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Sheng, Y. P. 1986a. Modeling bottom boundary layers and cohesive sedi
ment dynamics . In Estuarine Cohesive Sediment Dynamics. New York:
Springer-Verlag. Pp. 360-400.
Sheng, Y. P. 1986b. Finite-Difference Models for Hydrodynamics of
Lakes and Shallow Seas: Physics-Based Modeling of Lakes, Reser
voirs, and Impoundments. New York: American Society of Civil
Engineers. Pp. 146-228.
Sheng, Y. P. and W. J. Lick.
1979. The transport and resuspension
of sediments in a shallow lake. J. Geophysical Research 84:713-727.
Sheng, Y. P. and C. Villaret. 1988. Second-order closure modeling
of sediment-laden turbulent boundary layers. Paper presented at
American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference on Sediment Transport
Processes in Estuaries, Bahia Blanca, Argentina, June 13-17, 1988.
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Sheng, Y. P. 1983. Modeling of Three-dimensional Coastal Currents and
Sediment Dispersion, Vol. 1, Model Development and Application.
Technical Report CERC-83-2. Vicksburg, Miss: U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station.
Teeter, A. 1988. Case Study: Physical transport investigations at
New Bedford, Mass. Paper presented at the Contaminated Marine
Sediments Symposium, Marine Board, National Research Council.
Tampa, May 31-June 2, 1988.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
contaminated marine
