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OCR for page 50
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51
by stabilizing the ecosystem and by providing niches and protection
for other plants and animal. Criteria for selecting plant species for
use as fue~wood in saline environments include:
~ Rate of Growth and Regrowth Although many species may
survive in saline habitats, their growth ~ often too slow to provide
any significant production. The ability to coppice is of great prac-
tical importance. Combustible litter and branches shed from some
species is an advantage. High-density wood is preferred, but there
is generally a negative correlation between density and growth rate.
Species should be chosen that are easy to handle, cut, and split.
The wood should burn evenly and slowly without sparks or noxious
smoke.
~ Establishment In saline environments, establishment may
be difficult. There may only be a brief period suitable for planting.
Special preparation such as mulching, furrowing, or ridging may be
required to facilitate early growth. Some halophytes can tolerate
harsher conditions later in their growth than at germination.
. Adaptability- Some species require specialized habitats or
microclimates and will not survive in ah elements of the landscape
or across an entire climatic zone. Plants with significant plasticity in
climatic and site tolerance have greater potential for success.
~ Diverse Use Salt-tolerant trees and shrubs can serve other
purposes. They can reduce wind erosion, protect row crops, provide
shade or forage for livestock, and serve as a first step in land restora-
tion. Spiny salt-tolerant shrubs can be planted as living fences. Trees
can also serve to control salinity through their ability to use more
water than crops or pasture on an annual bash, and to draw it
from deeper in the soil profile. Candidate species that provide such
benefits in addition to fuel production would be advantageous.
Since it is unlikely that any species will meet all these require-
ments, compromise is necessary. Although selection is usually based
on performance in a similar environment, some species ~travel"
poorly, some show extreme variation In regard to source (prove-
nance), and some perform remarkably well far outside their native
climate.
In Australia, a consortium of business and academic groups* is
developing a multitiered approach to provide salt-tolerant trees for
*Tree Tech Australia, PO Box 252, Applecross, WA 6153, Australia.
OCR for page 52
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OCR for page 53
53
culture at NaC! concentrations up to 3.3 percent. Six of the species
tested had seedlings that grew in 3.3 percent NaCI. P. ju~ipora, from
West Africa, seemed to have the best potential for rapid growth
at high salinity. Other Prosop" surviving at 3.3 percent NaC]
were P. chi~ensis, P. articuiata, P. abbe, P. nigra/pexuosa, and P.
a~ba/nigra. P. tamarugo, identified earlier as having exceptional salt
tolerance, died from stem fungal disease before salt was introduced.
P. pubescens seedlings succumbed at 1.2 percent NaCI, possibly from
fungal disease as well.
P. ju~ipora has few soil and water constraints. It can be grown
in either dry or waterlogged saline areas, and on degraded soils with
low fertility. A thorny, deciduous, large-crowned, deep-rooted tree,
P. julipora may grow to 10 m or more, depending on the variety and
site. It is native to Central America and northern South America,
but it has been widely propagated in Africa and Asia, particularly in
India.
In India, P. ju~ipora has spread throughout the state of Tamer
Nadu where it is used for fuel by many of the rural poor, and its
availability is credited with a reduction of cutting in natural forests.
In one district, where substantial saline patches occur, farmers use
P. ju~iflora as a fallow species for four years. The trees are harvested
for Redwood or, in many cases, converted to charcoal. The land can
then be used for food crops for at least two years, after which trees
are replanted.
IN Pakistan, more than 300 hectares of P. ju~ipora have been suc-
cessfully established in sandy plains and dunes along the seacoast.
Nursery-grown seedlings were irrigated with underground saline wa-
ter for two years. After this, irrigation was discontinued, but the
plants continued to grow well, using their extensive root systems to
absorb rainwater and dew. Sunultaneous plantings of P. ju~iflora
in non-sandy strata with poorer percolation did not fare as well,
apparently because of salt buildup in the root system. The wood
produced in the sandy environment had a high heat content and low
ash, indicating its suitability as fue~wood.
Many other species of Prosopis yield good fue~wood as well. P.
chilensis has been planted extensively in arid areas and P. alba has
been used for reforesting dry saline areas. P. ruscifolia and P. pallida
also have potential for use on saline soils and P. cineraria tolerates
soils with a pH of over 9.
About 9,000 hectares of Prosopis have been planted in the
OCR for page 54
OCR for page 55
55
Bhavnagar area of India. Half is used by villagers for fue~wood
and half belongs to the forestry department.
Eucalyptus
Of the more than 500 species of Eucalyptus, relatively few are
salt tolerant. Among those that are salt tolerant, there is a broad
range of adverse environments where they occur. For example, a
recently described and appropriately named species, E. halophita,
occurs on the edges of salt lakes in Australia. E. angulosa grows in
white coastal sand in Western and South Australia. It is used as a
windbreak in coastal areas and may be grown where salt spray is
a problem. E. torquata occurs in South Australia, often on shallow
rocky soils and in association with Atriplex species.
E. camaldulensis grows widely in arid areas, usually along per-
manent or seasonal inland streams. An Australian native, it is now
planted in many Mediterranean countries and is used for fue~wood,
charcoal, poles, and for paper and particleboard manufacture. It
is adapted to tropical and temperate climates and will grow well
on poor soils and in areas where there are prolonged dry seasons
(provided its roots can reach groundwater) or where periodic wa-
terIogging occurs. It is not suitable for planting in humid tropical
lowlands, nor in coastal areas where it would be exposed to wind-
blown salt. Of its numerous provenances, a few have been shown to
be highly salt-tolerant.
E. occidentalis is drought resistant and tolerates high tempera-
tures, salinity, and waterlogging. In Western Australia, it has been
found in clayey soils adjacent to salt lakes. E. saTgentii is also native
to Western Australia, where it ~ frequently found in areas where salt
appears on the soil surface. It is reported to be one of the hardiest
species and one of the last to die in areas of increasing salinity.
Of several Australian eucalyptus species tested in Israel, the
highest growth rate and resistance to salinity (~30 dS/m) were shown
by E. occidentalis and E. sargentfi; at lower salinity levels (20-
30 dS/m), E. spathulata, E. kondininensis, and E. Eozophieba also
exhibited rapid growth.
Eucalyptus species reported by Blake (1981) to survive salt con-
centrations of ~1.8 percent are E. calophyita, E. erythrocorys, E.
incrassata, E. [argiforens, E. neglects, and E. tereticornis. Other
species that have been reported to grow well in saline environments
are listed in Table 8.
OCR for page 56
.~
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St~::~ d~S ~ ::
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OCR for page 57
57
:.0.: ~
Mangrove forests survive waterlogging' salinity, and strong coastal winds. They
help protect shorelines and serve as nurseries for many fish species. (NOAA)
Caribbean. It can grow on loose seashore sand within a few meters
of high tide.
Its success as an introduced species is due to its ability to grow
on nutrient-poor soils and to tolerate windblown salt, high alkalinity
levels (pH 9.0-9.5), and moderate groundwater salinity.
In a study of the effect of salinity on growth and nitrogen fixation
in C. eq?`isetifolia, it was found that increasing the NaC] level to 200
mM (about 1.2 percent) had little effect on nitrogen fixation. At
intermediate levels of salinity (50-100 mM NaCI), nitrogen fixation
and growth were greater than for the control.
Not all species of Casuarina are salt tolerant and there is signif-
icant variation among those that are. C. cristata, C. glauca, and C.
obese are all reporter] to be more salt tolerant than C. equisetifolia
and more suitable for heavier clay soils and waterlogged conditions.
In recent testing for performance in saTine-wateriogged conditions,
C. Mesa grew better than Eucalyptus camaldulensis and five other
Eucalyptus species (van der Moeze} et al., 1988~. C. obesa is noted
for its ability to grow in warm subhumid and semiarid zones. It
produces good fueTwood and is useful in shelterbelts.
OCR for page 58
58
TABLE 8 Salt-Tolerant Eucalyptus Species.
Eucalyptus Species
Over Site
Charactensucs
E. astringent
E. brockwayi
E. calycogona
E. campaspe
E. concinna
E. diptera
E. floc1aonuze
E. forrestuana
E. gracilis
E. gri~thsii
E. Iehmannii
E. (foecunda) leptophylla
E. Iesouefi
E. Iongicornis
E. merricldae
E. ovularis
E. platycorys
E. platypus
E. salm~nophloua
E. woodwardii
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry, Coastal
Dry
DIY, Coastal
Dry, Clay
Dry
Dry, Coastal
Dry
Dry
Dry
DIY
Dry
DIY
Dry
Dry
Dly
SOURCE: Chippendale, 1973-
Rhixophora
Mangrove forests grow on 45 million hectares of tropical coastal
and estuarine areas. They are tolerant of waterlogging, high salin-
ity and humudity, and strong coastal winds. Although seawater is
tolerated, most species grow best at lower salinity lever, particu-
larly where there is freshwater seepage to moderate seawater salinity.
Studies on the mangrove Av~cennia marina, indicate that growth is
poor in fresh water; maximum biomass production occurs at salinity
levels of 25-50 percent of seawater.
Rhizophora species range from small shrubs to tall trees. While
R. mangle and R. mucronata are usually about 2~25 m tall, R.
apiculata can grow to heights of 60 m.
The principal use for most Rhizophora species is for fue~wood
and charcoal. Most species also produce a strong, attractive timber,
notably durable in water. Mangroves have the added value of reduc-
ing typhoon damage, binding and building sand and soil, serving as
spawning and nursery grounds for many species of fish and shellfish,
and as nesting and Welling sites for seabirds. Mangroves serve as a
OCR for page 59
In addltlon to Mel use, mangroves are cut far boat construction (top) and for
conversion to paper pulp (bottom). (OF PbotoUbr~/X~ler ~coultre)
OCR for page 60
60
special link between the land and sea; inorganic nutrients from the
land become organic nutrients and are passed on to the sea.
R. mangle has been planted for coastal protection in Florida
and Hawaii. R. mucronata is used for replanting cleared areas in
Malaysia. Mangrove swamps have been managed for fue~wood in
Malaysia for more than 80 years with harvest on a midyear cycle.
In Indonesia, the rotation is 20 years for firewood and 35 years for
charcoal. In Thailand, a midyear rotation is practiced for producing
poles, firewood, and charcoal.
The black mangrove, Avicennia germinans, of the New World
tropics and subtropics, as well as the Old World species A. marina
and A. officinalis, inhabiting salt marshes, tidal swamps, and muddy
coasts, provide fuel, charcoal, and wood for boats, furniture, posts,
pilings, and utensils.
Mangroves are generally slow growing and cannot tolerate in-
discrirninate lopping. Although some species can be established by
direct seeding, if strip-felling rather than clear-cutting is used for
harvest, natural regeneration will occur. The Mangrove Research
Center* in the Philippines has a mangrove nursery and a working
group on the silviculture of mangroves.
Melaleuca
Melaleuca quinquenervia and M. viridi.gora are often found to-
gether occupying slightly higher ground next to mangrove swamps.
M. quinquenervia is deep rooted and can grow on nutrient-poor
coastal soils. It can grow near the beach and survives windblown
salt. Although it grows best in fresh water, it can tolerate saline
groundwater. It is an excellent fueTwood and regenerates readily af-
ter coppicing. It seeds profusely and can become a nuisance in areas
where occasional fires create a suitable seedbed.
M. styphelioides is a fmst-growing tree, ~18 m tall, found in
swampy coastal sites in eastern Australia. It is more salt tolerant
than M. quinquenervia and tolerates a wide variety of conditions
including sandy, wet, saline, and heavy clay soils and some coastal
exposure.
*Mangrove Research Center, Forest Research Institute, Laguna 3720,
Philippines.
OCR for page 63
63
Australia, A. oraria grows close to the sea and A. crassicaTpa' in
association with Casuarina equisetifolia, tolerates salt-laden winds
on frontal sand dunes.
Some Acacia species tolerate high levels of groundwater salinity.
A. stenophyila is widely planted on salt-aflSected sites and A. redolens,
A. ampliceps, A. xiphophyila, and A. translucens all grow in highly
saline areas. Other species with good salt resistance include A.
poribunda, A. pendula, A. pycnantha, A. Tetino~es, and A. cyclops.
A. auriculiformis is suitable for coastal sandy sites subjected
to windblown salt and areas with acid or alkaline conditions. In
northern Australia, it grows on sand dunes with a soil pH of 9.0.
In laboratory tests, it has tolerated highly acid conditions. This
nitrogen-fixing species also grows well in seasonally waterlogged ar-
eas. It has the disadvantage of brittle branches, which may break in
ordinary winds.
Other Species
In India, twenty species of trees and shrubs were planted in a
trial using saline water (EC = 4.0-6.1 dS/m) for irrigation. Of these,
nine species were growing well after 18 months. The trees included
Acacia nilol;ica, Albizzia [ebbed, Cassia siamea, Pongamiapinnata,
Prosopis juli'7ora, Syzygium cumin), and Terminalia arjuna; shrubs
were Adhatoda vasica and Cassia auTicuiata. On the basis of costs
for establishing and maintaining these plants, and the selling price
for firewood, it was estimated that the required investment would be
recovered in five years.
Pongamia pinnate, known as karanja, is found along the banks
of streams and rivers and in beach and tidal forests in India. In
West Bengal, a rotation of 30 years is used in Pongamia fue~wood
plantations. Pongam oil, 27-39 percent of the seed, is used for leather
treatment, soap making, lubrication, and medicinal purposes. An
active component in the oil, karanjin, is reported to have insecticidal
and antibacterial properties.
Butea monosperma is a medium-sized (3-4 m) deciduous tree
that grows in waterlogged and saline soils in tropical Asia. Its profuse
spring canopy of scarlet flowers earn it the common name "flame of
the forest." Its seeds and seed oil have anthelm~ntic properties.
The Manila tamarind (`Pithecellobium duice`) is a hardy evergreen
tree that grows to 18 m in the Indian plains and tropical Americas.
A legume, it grows in poor and sandy soils and survives in coastal
OCR for page 64
1~e Or ~ :~ ~ papa
~ ~ as, ~ ~
area ~ ~ 1 s goats ~ so ~
, ~ ;, ~
#~# 7~) ~1~> )# In C0~1
zo~otsis ~ to mater.
~., . ~ ^^ , ~,
as to their ate to gram tlj agog c~ the shore
no indications ofotb~er de~rab~ characteristic far use as fuels od;
so~neoftbet~reessuggestedf~rpl~ting wberetbereisdb~ctexpos
tosaltspray and sand (category 1) azel~ted in baby 9.
OCR for page 65
65
TABLE 9 Seashore Trees.
Species Common Name Native Area
Albizia lophantha Cape Wattle Australia
Araucaria excelsa NorfoLk Island Pine. Norfolk Island
Banksia integrifolia Coast Honeysuckle Australia
Barringtonia acutangula Sri Lanka
Caesalpinia coriaria Divi-divi Venezuela
Carallia integerrima Dawata India
Casasia clusiaefolia Seven Year Apple Florida
Catesbaea parviflora Lily Thorn Florida
Cerbera odollam Gon-kadura India
Conocarpus erectus Buttonwood Florida
Corynocarp us laevigat us Karaka New Zealand
Crataegus pubescens Mexican Hawthorn Mexico
Cytissus proliferus Escabon Cana~y Islands
Ficus rubiginosa Rusty Fig Florida
Garcinia spicata India
Grevillea banksii Australia
Griselinia littoralis Broadleaf New Zealand
Guettarda speciosa South Pacific
Holoptelea integrifolia ~dian Elm ~dia
Juniperus barbadensis Barbados Red Cedar West ~dies
Leptosperm~m laevigatum Coast Tea Tree Australia
Messerschrnidia argentia Beach Heliotrope Hawaii
Metrosideros tomentosa New Zealand
Christmas Tree New Zealand
Myoporurn laeturn New Zealand
Olearoa albida Tree Aster New Zealand
Pinus halepensis Aleppo Pine Mediterranean
P`ttosporum crassifolium Karo New Zealand
Pomaderris apetala Tainui New Zealand
Prunus spinosa Sloe Australia
Pseudopana~c crassifolium Lancewood New Zealand
Torrubu: longifolua Blolly Flonda
Vitex lucens Punn New Zealand
Ximenia americana Tallowwood West Indies
SOURCE: Menninger, 1964.
[IQUID FUElS*
A number of countries are pioneering the large-scale use of al-
coho! fuels. In Brazil, for instance, a country that imported more
than 80 percent of its petroleum in 1979, a combination of factors-
including the availability of land and labor, a need for liquid fuels,
*See also Alcohol Fuela: Option~ for Developir~g Countries. To order, see p. 135.
OCR for page 66
all
of
~ ~ ~ ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' ..................................
. ~Ada ~ ~-
~ Adds
as
J ~
an ~18 ^ ~ ^)
gage 0.= ~ ~
(
1~6~8~t
30
. :
121 ~ ~
~ x ~ it.
-~ ~ ~ _ ~ ^ , . ~ _~,
^ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - ~ ~ ~ _ ~ _
30~0 liters ~ Jade per beam em ~= ~ul~l~~ page =~
produce ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ liters ~ sag Per tag em day ~~16 is
eq~iv~ent to nearly 8~ liters ~ acme per Bect~e em ye=.
Because ~ the ace ~ Id Cacti, the sag Begins to ardent
OCR for page 67
67
as soon as it is tapped; if it is not used quickly, fermentation will
proceed to acetic acid. The principal disadvantages for nipa are the
inaccessibility of its wild stands and the difficulty of working in the
swampy terrain that the plant prefers. Cultivated stands may require
land that would otherwise be suitable for rice.
GASEOUS FUELS
Although grown primarily for use as fodder (see p.75), kallar
grass (Leptochioa fusca) has been shown to have potential as an
energy crop by researchers at the Nuclear Institute for Agriculture
and Biology in Pakistan. As shown in Table 10, when kallar grass
is used as a substrate for biogas production, the energy yield per
hectare per year is estimated to be 15 x 106 kcal.
REFERENCES AND SELECTED R1:ADINGS
General
Adappa, B. S. 1986. Waste land development for bioenergy need for forestry
grant schemes and incentive policies. MYFOREST 22~4~:227-231.
Ahmad, R. 1987. Saline Agrtculturc at Coastal Sandy Bait. University of Karachi,
Karachi, Pakistan.
Barrett-Lennard, E. G., C. V. Malcolm, W. R. Stern and S. M. Wilkins (eds.~.
1986. Forage and Fuel Production from Salt Affected wasteland. Elsevier, Oxford,
England. (Also published as Volume 5, No. 1-3, 1986, of Rcclamation and
Reuegetation Research).
Bangash, S. H. 1977. Salt tolerance of forest tree species as determined
by germination of seeds at different salinity levels. Chemistry Branch,
Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan.
Chaturvedi, A. N. 1984. Firewood crops in areas of brackish water. Indian
Forester 110~4~:364-366.
Goodin, J. R. 1984. Assessment of the Potential of Halophytes as Energy Crops
for the Electric Utility Industry (Final Report). International Center for
Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Lubbock, Texas, US.
Gupta, G. N., K. G. Prasad, S. Mohan and P. Manivachakam. 1986. Salt toler-
ance of some tree species at seedling stage. Iranian Forc~tcr
112~2~:101-113.
Jambulingam, R. and E. C. M. Fernandes. 1986. Multipurpose trees and shrubs
on farmlands in Tamil Nadu State (India). Agroforc~try Sy~tcrru 4:17-32.
Le Houerou, H. N. 1986. Salt-tolerant plants of economic value in the Mediter-
ranean basin. Rcclamation and Rcocgetation Rcscarch 5:319-341.
Lima, P. C. F. 1986. Tree productivity in the semiarid zone of Brazil. Forest
Ecology and Management 16:5-13.
Malik, M. N. and M. I. Sheikh. 1983. Planting of trees in saline and water-
logged areas. Part I. Test planting at Azakhel. Pakistan Journal of Forestry
33~13:1-17.
OCR for page 68
Go:
~ ~ is!
~: >- ^~S~.,
Abet S J.> J: ~,~ ^~611 =3 ~ 3 0~^ 19~ ^~1-~)S ~~ far
~^ ~_ . ~
~ Pat Cage
d ~# ~ ~ ~io~ 95(3)~:l~2~sl~i~
^s, J. As. 1~4. ~t^~t ~ tam ~ scam o~ ~ AIMS ate WAS
Era Tr~. 3~ ~ 47~4~:~21~0~217.
^~s; a. a. 1984+ ~ AFT 4~lt#~ En: it 67~. ~= ~st~l~
Depart of alto Solute ^~; ~=
O.. ~1979. age yield pote=~il~s~!!~=y~s hi a. Pp.
57475gI ~ id: ~ -I !~!:!~ ski! =~ ~ ~ Ala ~ Sash :~<
~ .~ ~ A ~ ~ ~
P~tel~ V. JO ~1987. Poppets ~ par g~er#~l6S 3~ arty flus ~ I~.
-Ed ~ ~1~( 4)!318~20~.
c~ as ~ ~t~ a. A.^_^ ~ ^.^! ^_ !_
^ s
.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~
' I' ~ 'I
e!~ou~t~ ^~ Satyr. ^~ f ~ ~ 35(1):22~5.
> J. S. ~ ~lsi~pl,~ ~t~=l~lit~!~f~ss~^>t~a~r~g tags ala
Arch patsy. ~ as ~ ~/ ~ 1:3~44~
am S. Q. =3 E. C. a. 1986. The Gas ~ =bselte (ace Age.)
the ~l~l~^s of So ^~ ^~; ~~1~. ----a
16 :4!~56,
^$ ~ ^~% 1!(~2/$)~:125~1~:
^l~r~ P. C. a. C_eI1 ~d J. F. Of. 1~.
E1~ peat of 32 pals (~1$~)
~ 1~:~.
flare Act ~ ~~ ~!1~3 Isle ~s gag =3 ~ F. Pa*. ala Saw ace
stir tag gas== =~0 (aim ~ fir
S ~ a. ~o fig ~) >;_s s(^ ) ~go
~; b.> a. ^~ ma s. Idol. 1se6. car atom ~ ~ ~=
. ~^ . ^
55s~5 id: it. gads ~d it. Sag Pates f63~.! ~ ~ ~
^~ ~i~ ~ ~1> aural, ~t=~.
11~; a. 1~6. Eat of ~o {~- ^ ^~- c~-
/~ ~^ ~# -~ ~ the ma ~ ~ wet.
Aim ~ ~ ~ 16~40. --
~uth~. a. D. ~^ B. L.
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OCR for page 69
69
Ethodes, D. and P. FeLker. 1988. Mass screening of Pro~opu (Mesquite) seedlings
for growth at seawater salinity concentrations. Corset Ecology and Managc-
mer~t 24~33:169-176.
Eucalyptus
Biddiscombe, E. F., A. L. Rogers, E. A. N. Greenwood and E. S. DeBoer. 1981.
Establishment and early growth of species in farm plantations near saline
seeps. Australia?: Journal of Ecology 6:383-389.
Biddiscombe, E. F., A. L. Rogers, E. A. N. Greenwood and E. S. DeBoer. 1985.
Growth of tree species near salt seeps, as estimated by leaf area, crown
volume and height. ~Awtralian Forcat Rcecarch 15~2~:141-154.
Blake, T. J. 1981. Salt tolerance of eucalypt species grown in saline solution
culture. Awtrahan Forcat Research 11~2~:179-183.
Carr, S. G. M. and D. J. Carr. 1980. A new species of Eucalyptw from the
margins of salt lakes in Western Australia. Nuyt~na 3:173-178.
Chippendale, G. M. 1973. Eucalypts of the Wcetcrn Australian Goldficids. Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.
D arrow, W. K. 1983. Provenance-type trials of Eucalyptw carnalduleneu and E.
tcrcticorrm in South Africa and Southwest Africa: eight-year results. South
African Forcatry Journal 124(3):13-22.
Grunwald, C. and R. Karshon 1983. Variation of Eucalyptw camalduleneu from
North Australia grown in Israel. Division of Forestry, Agricultural Research
Organization, Ilanot, Israel.
Jacobs, M. R. 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. FAO Forestry Series No. 11, Rome,
Italy.
Karschon, R. and Y. Zohar. 1975. Effects of Wooding and of irrigation water
salinity on Eucalyptw camaldulen~ Dehn. from three seed sources. Leaflet
No. 54, Division of Forestry, Agricultural Research Organization, Ilanot,
Israel.
Mathur, N. K. and A. K. Sharma. 1984. Eucalyptus in reclamation saline and
alkaline soils in India. Indian Forcekr 110~1~:9-15.
Muthana, K. D., G. V. S. Ramakrishna and G. D. Arora. 1983. Analysis
of growth and establishment of Eucalyptw camalduleneu in the Indian arid
zone. Annals of And Zone Research 22~1~:151-155.
Sands, R. 1981. Salt resistance in Eucalyptw camaldulen~ Dehn. from three
different seed sources. Division of Soils, CSIRO, Glen Osmond, Australia.
Zohar, Y. 1982. Growth of eucalypts on saline soils in the Wadi Arava. La-Yaaran
32~1-4~:60-64.
Casuarina
Ng, B. H. 1987. The effects of salinity on growth, nodulation and nitrogen
fixation of Casuarina cq~ctifolia. Plard and Soil 103:123-125.
Turnbull, J. W. 1986. Casuarina oboe Pp. 244-245 in: Multipurpose Australian
mecca and Shrubs. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research,
Canberra, Australia.
van der Moezel, P. G., L. E. Watson, G. V. N. Pearce-Pinto and D. T. Bell.
1988. The response of six Eucalyptw species and Ca~uarsna obey to the
combined effect of salinity and waterlogging. Awiralian Journal of Plar~t
Physiology 15~3~:465-474.
OCR for page 70
^~ J. IS., W. a. ~11~ ma B. J. Clay 1982.
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C~> D. a. ~1988. Do =CeE ~ gem =~ alar aria rester ~-
t~: ~-se=~# ad :~t^# ~ to ~ ~ :E~ ~0= ~:g to
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1~ =~rtBe~ 1~Sla (~ go
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71
Acacia
Turnbull, J. W. (ed.~. 1986. Australian Acacias in Developing Countries. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 16, Canberra, Australia.
A`dhato`da vamca
Chaturvedi, A. N. 1984. Firewood crops in areas of brackish water. Indian
Forcatcr 110~4~:364-366.
Singh, A., M. Madan and P. Vasudevan. 1987. Increasing biomass yields of
hardy weeds through coppicing studies on Ipomoca fi~h~losa and Adhatoda
basics with reference to wasteland utilization. Biological Wattle 19:25-33.
Pongamia pinnate
Krishnamurthi, A. (eddy. 1969. Pongamia. Wcalth of Incia VIII:206-211. CSIR,
New Delhi, India.
Lak~hmikanthan, V. 1978. lEcc Bornc Oil Scede. Khadi & Village Industry
Commission, Pune, India.
Bringi, N. V. and S. K. Mukerjee. 1987. Karanja seed oil. Pp. 143-166 in: N.
V. Bringi (ed.) Non-lhd~onal Oileceda and 0~ of India. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi, India.
Butea monosperma
Man3unath, B. L. (ed.~. 1948. Butca. Wcalth of India 1:251-252. CSIR, New
Delhi, India.
Lakshmikanthan, V. 1978. Free Bornc Oil Scede. Khadi & Village Industry
Commission, Pune, India.
Pithecellobium duice
Krishnamurthi, A. (ed.~. 1969. Pitheccilobium. Wcalth of Irma VIII:140-142.
CSIR, New Delhi, India.
Nipa Palm
Davis, T. A. 1986. Nipa palm in Indonesia, a source of unlimited food and
energy. Indonesian Agricu~twal Research ~ Dcvelopmcnt Journal 8~2~:38-44.
Hamilton, L. S. and D. H. Murphy. 1988. Use and management of nipa palm
(Nypofrubeans, Arecacae): A review. Economic Botany 42:206-213.
Paivoke, A. E. A. 1984. Tapping patterns in the nips palm. Principle 28:132-137.
Pratt, D. S., L. W. Thurlow, R. R. Williams and H. D. Gibbs. 1913. The nipa
palm as a commercial source of sugar. The Philippine Journal of Scicnec
8~6~:377-398.
KalIar Grass
Malik, K. A., Z. Aslam and M. Naqvi. 1986. Kallar Grass A Plant for Saline
Land. Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
OCR for page 72
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73
B. H. Ng, Botany Department, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4067,
Australia.
Paul G. van der Moezel, Department of Botany, University of Western Australia,
Nedlands 6009, Australia.
Rhizophora
John S. Bunt, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville
M.C., Queensland 4810, Australia.
Chan Hung Tuck, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, Selangor,
Malaysia.
A. A. de la Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State, MS 39762, US.
Francis E. Putz, Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611, US.
Klaus Rutzler, Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC 20560, US.
UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangroves Project, 15, Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110003,
India.
Melateuca
J. F. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL
33124, US.
Paul G. van der Moezel, Department of Botany, University of Western Australia,
Nedlands 6009, Australia.
Tamarix
Chihuahua Desert Research Institute, PO Box 1334, Alpine, TX 79830, US.
Acacia
Division of Forest Research, CSIRO, PO Box 4008, Canberra 2600, Australia.
Forestry Division, Agricultural Research Organization, Ilanot, Israel.
Nipa Palm
T. A. Davis, JBS Haldane Research Center, Nagercoil-4, Tamil Nadu, India.
L. S. Hamilton, East-West Center, Honolulu, HI 96848, US.
E. J. Del Rosario, BIOTECH, UPLB, Los Banos, Philippines.
KalIar Grass
K. A. Malik, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, PO Box 128,
Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
dry dry
