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7
Other Modes and Contexts
for Teaching Science
INTEGRATING BIOLOGY WITH OTHER SCIENCES
In Chapter 3, we assumed that the high-school science curriculum in most
schools in the immediate future will retain the structure it has now: it will
include biology as a separate course, usually the first science course taken
in high school. (It usually comes after a variable and generally inadequate
exposure to "health" and general science in middle school, but this can and
must change.) A high-school science curriculum that proceeds from biology to
chemistry to physics entails some substantial educational problems. We touched
on some of the issues in Chapter 3, but we take them up again here, because
an adequate solution will require a long-term approach.
The fundamental problem arises from the increasing need to understand
some chemistry in order to understand much biology. Students now enter
high-school biology knowing little or no chemistry and physics. The pragmatic
"solution" has been either to teach aspects of chemistry in the biology course, to
require students to memorize biochemical names and organic chemical structures
in a context destined to kill interest, or to combine the two. If students have
not even studied enough chemistry to know that "carbon has a valence of 4"
or even to comprehend what that statement means, there is no justification for
expecting them to know the much more complicated molecular structures of
glucose and alanine.
Suppose the sequence of courses were reversed, with physics preceding
chemistry and biology coming last. That arrangement also has its difficulties, in
that physics and chemistry are more successfully taught to students who have
more mature capacities for abstract reasoning and more extensive experience
with mathematics.
81
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
The solutions to the dilemma are educationally interesting. If children
in elementary school were to have a steady involvement in science with an
emphasis on natural history, as proposed in Chapter 3, they would enter
high school more aware of the world around them, the diversity of life,
the relationships among living things, and the structure of their earth, the
atmosphere, and the planets and stars. Students coming from such a background
would already be aware of fossils, for example, and would step naturally into
a study of how evolution can be inferred from the fossil record. They would
already know enough about plants and animals to appreciate the differences
among most of the commonly observed taxa. Students would be exposed to
integrated subject matter before they entered high-school biology, and they
would have a far better base for learning biology than most students now have
when they start the subject.
But that is just the start; another kind of integration of subject matter
could occur during middle school and high school. In almost every developed
nation but not the United States secondary schools teach biology, chemistry,
physics, and mathematics either in parallel streams or in integrated multiyear
courses. The pedagogical advantages of those approaches are clear and obvious.
The entire problem of how or when or whether to teach the more molecular
aspects of biology would disappear, because the necessary chemistry could be
presented before the corresponding part of the biology curriculum is reached. All
the subjects would be integrated as soon as the relevant bits were presented. The
sense that the sciences truly constitute a unified, integrated body of knowledge
would no longer depend on whether (and when) a student could fit 4 years of
separate packages into a conceptual whole. The student who took only 1 or 2
years of high-school science would learn some of the most basic and important
concepts of all three disciplines biology, chemistry, and physics instead of
missing one or two of the disciplines almost totally.
One drawback of having integrated or parallel courses is that it would
require much work to prepare them and much more cooperation among teachers
than does the present system of separate sequential courses. In the view of
this committee, that is an insufficient reason for not developing an integrated
or parallel science program. The benefits in scientific literacy, in coherent and
logical presentation of subject matter, and in arranging the subject matter to
fit students' developing conceptual sophistication far outweigh the short-term
difficulties of redesigning a curriculum.
Recommendations
We should begin now to plan and support models for integrated or
parallel programs in biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics, both for
high schools and for grades K-12. The details of the curriculum might turn
out to be the easiest part of the task, because to effect the change on a broad
scale will require in the short term the creation of appropriate inservice
support, the development of new patterns of cooperative teaching, and the
cooperation of teachers. The new National Science Teachers Association
Scope, Sequence and Coordination project (Aldridge, 1989) is a move in
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OTHER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE
83
that direction. In the longer term, preservice programs will have to be
altered, as will expectations for licensing and certification of teachers. But
the disadvantages of compartmentalizing the natural sciences at the high-
school level will only worsen with time. We therefore propose as a first
step a study of the benefits that might accrue from such a change in the
curriculum and an analysis of the inherent obstacles to the implementation
of this change. There will be wide-ranging implications for university
curricula and a need to engage college and university faculties, as well as
teachers, in these reforms. Chapter 8 presents a possible mechanism to
help advance our recommendation.
ADVANCED-PLACEMENT BIOLOGY
The Present Advanced-Placement Program in Biology
The Advanced-Placement (AP) program in biology, which is sponsored
by The College Entrance Examination Board (College Board), consists of a
course description with suggested time percentages for major and minor topics,
suggested textbooks, laboratory exercises, an examination, and a list of more
than 2,000 colleges and universities that "normally use Advanced Placement
Examination grades in determination of advanced placement and credit" in
biology (College Board, 1987, p. 77~.
In principle, the AP biology course is intended to be equivalent to an
introductory college-level course in biology. To plan the most recent revision of
the course, 80 colleges were surveyed in 1985 to determine the content of their
introductory courses for biology majors. The AP course was designed on the
basis of the results of the survey. Three major sections are outlined: molecules
and cells (25% of allocated time), genetics and evolution (25%), and organisms
and populations (50%~. Each section is divided into topics (with suggested
allocations of time). The design of the course is predicated on the assumption
that students have successfully completed year courses each in high-school
biology and high-school chemistry.
Laboratory work in the AP biology course is based on data that suggest
that about one-fourth of the credit for college biology is derived from laboratory
work. The course guide presents 12 laboratory activities, all experimental and
quantitative, with detailed advice for all aspects of each activity. AP biology
teachers are expected to integrate those activities into their curricula and to
conduct additional laboratory activities. The laboratory activities are considered
to be "basic introductions, or springboards, into further experiments, studies, or
independent projects" (College Board, 1987, p. 7~.
First-level college biology courses typically consist of 40-50 hours of
lecture and 25-30 hours of laboratory work per semester, and equivalent time
should be allocated for the AP biology course. School administrators and
prospective AP biology teachers are warned of that requirement and warned
that the AP biology course, if it is to be equivalent to a college-level course,
will be substantially more expensive than a typical high-school biology course.
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
The AP biology examination consists of a 90-minute, 120-item multiple-
choice section and a 90-minute section of "free responses" or essays based on
four mandatory questions. There is one question each for the first two major
content sections and two for the third. To ensure that laboratories are used in AP
biology classes, some questions are related to the laboratory experiments. The
examination is designed to have a mean score of about 50%. Teachers are asked
not to prepare students to answer every question, but to teach for understanding
of the concepts. The rationale is that students who understand on a conceptual
level what they have studied will do better on the test. The examination is
graded by more than 1,000 college and secondary-school teachers familiar with
the AP program. The multiple-choice sections are scored with a correction
factor to compensate for guessing. In 1988, 64% of students who took the AP
biology examination earned scores of 3 or higher (MacDonald, 1989) grades
deemed high enough to qualify for college credit or advanced placement in
many (but not all) colleges and universities that recognize AP courses.
Over the decade 1978-1988, enrollments in AP biology increased from
about 11,000 to 31,000. MacDonald (1989) states that AP students perform in
college as well as or (often) better than non-AP students taking the college-
level course for which AP credit was sought and tend to demonstrate higher
achievement than their non-AP counterparts. That is not surprising, considering
the goals and motivation of most students who take both the AP biology course
and the examination. There is also a "good correlation between scores on
the AP biology examination and subsequent grades in introductory and upper-
level biology courses in college" (MacDonald, 1989) again, not surprising or
particularly revealing. Students often report that they found themselves well-
prepared for the sequence of advanced college-level courses in which they could
enroll, but that view is not universally shared by college faculty.
The Success of AP Biology
"7 ~
If the recommendations of the College Board are followed by a properly
prepared teacher with adequate laboratory facilities, the AP biology program
could provide the equivalent of an introductory college biology course. The
course has recently incorporated experimental, quantitative laboratory activities
as an integral part of the curriculum. Compared with other commonly used
assessment instruments, the AP-biology examination questions are much more
advanced in their reading level and more effective in assessing the major ideas
of the course and the general quality of understanding of the students.
The presence of AP biology provides an incentive for students with an
interest in science and might serve as a device to recruit students to other science
courses. And AP courses probably also help individual students in admission to
college. It has also been an incentive for teachers who are willing to put in the
extra work for an AP course in return for having a small group of motivated
students. As an alternative to teaching in the common core curriculum, AP
courses offer teachers some of the advantages of teaching a homogeneous group
of motivated students.
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OTHER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE
Opinions of Teachers and Parents
85
Although there have been no extensive studies of the reaction of teachers
and parents to AP courses, concerns that are voiced by parents, students, teach-
ers, counselors, and administrators influence decisions to install AP science
courses. For example, parent advocates argue that AP courses are more chal-
lenging than existing science courses and therefore more likely to motivate their
children. They also argue that having their children take AP courses lowers
their tuition costs (a spurious argument, except for students who graduate from
college in less than 4 years) and that non-AP students in college classes with
students who have taken AP courses are at a competitive disadvantage. They
feel that it is appropriate for public schools to offer college-level classes for
high-school students who can benefit from them.
However, serious problems, both philosophical and practical, attend the AP
biology program. Some teachers feel that AP courses require more preparation
time and more laboratory equipment, that textbooks (which are provided to
students) cost more, and that students take a second year of biology in place of
other valuable science courses that are available. And high schools are often not
able to provide the resources necessary for a college-level course. Many biology
teachers report that their school districts do not or cannot support the kinds of
laboratory activities and field trips considered desirable for even the regular
biology courses.* Some teachers report that the AP course covers too many
aspects of biology in too short a time, puts excessive emphasis on lecturing by
the teachers, does not devote enough time to laboratory work, requires teaching
to the examination, and induces some of the most academically able students to
take a course merely to gain admission to college. Other teachers, however, feel
that AP courses influence students to take more rigorous academic programs.
Counselors feel that there are valuable, rigorous non-AP courses that students
reject in favor of AP courses. Administrators are concerned with taking on
college-level responsibilities, with the costs of college texts and laboratory
materials, with personnel problems (AP teachers' teaching loads can usually not
be reduced or their preparation time increased), and~with the impact on other
course enrollments.
We are concerned that the AP biology course has been modeled on in-
troductory college biology courses that for many students are notoriously poor
educational experiences. The time has come to stop designing curricula by the
process of serial dilution, in which the high-school course is a thin version
of the college course, and the middle-school course is a thin version of the
high-school course. The question of how well the AP biology course prepares
students for upper-level biology courses is difficult to answer. There are no
comparative assessments of how well college introductory biology courses pre-
pare students. Moreover, many colleges and universities do not exempt students
*Biology teachers reported this state of affairs to the Committee on High-School Biology Education
during a symposium at the NABT 50th Anniversary Convention, November 17, 1988, Chicago, Illi-
nois.
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
with AP credit from their introductory biology courses, and others do so with
misgivings. In some cases, students who have taken AP biology and passed
the examination with a high grade are allowed into honors sections in college
introductory biology; but it is not known how widespread or valuable this
practice is.
Another matter, although of less concern, is that some students who take the
AP biology course do not take the examination. The extent of that practice and
the reasons for it are not clear, but its impact on the examination scores might
be significant. The statement that 64% of students achieve grades of 3 or higher
(MacDonald, 1989) obviously refers to those who take the examination, not to
all those who take the course. The requirement of payment (by the students or
the school system) for the examination might be a factor in decisions not to
take it.
Critics feel that the AP biology course in particular and AP courses in
general might contribute to tracking, can become elitist, and can compromise
equity. Our committees however, does not feel that offering advanced courses
to interested students should become an issue of equity. The major question
should be whether the courses accomplish their goals.
Conclusions
Secondary schools need to provide opportunities for able students to be-
come passionate about their interests, whether in art, music, sports, humanities,
or the sciences. We do not question the desirability of second-year biology, only
the nature of the existing AP course. The present version of the AP biology
course can have the positive effect of providing second-level opportunities for
motivated students to study the science. In a number of cases, AP biology
has doubtless provided opportunities for teachers and students to extend their
knowledge and engage in exceptional educational experiences. We are skeptical,
however, about whether AP biology is commonly able to provide an exposure
equivalent to that offered in most colleges.
Recommendations
· A consensus needs to be reached as to what the AP biology course
should be. The present policy of modeling the AP course after a composite
view of college courses is missing opportunities for generating a unique
high-school experience, providing a more realistic introduction to experi-
mentation, and providing better college preparation. Although the recent
inclusion of quantitative experimentation in the AP program was needed
and is commendable, an introductory college course may not be the sound-
est educational experience for students who have time for a second course
in biology in high school. Whether the AP course will develop into a strong
component of biology education or will itself become an obstacle to reform
is unclear. A national body of educators, high~school and college biology
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OTHER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE
87
teachers, and scientists should make specific recommendations about the
AP curriculum, examinations, and college credit. (See also Chapter 8.) The
College Board should be asked to study fully its own record of success,
follow up on the college placement of students, and assess compliance of
high schools with its recommendations for prerequisites.
· Whatever their form, AP or other advanced biology courses should
not be taken instead of chemistry, physics, or mathematics. Nor should
they become the "honors" section, taken in lieu of the first high-school
course in biology. The AP biology course should be taken as late in high
SCHOOI as possible, preferably In the senior year, to enable the subject
to be taught as an experimental science to students whose maturity is
close to that of college freshmen. Even a properly designed AP course
in biology is inappropriate for younger students and for those without
maximal preparation in mathematics and the physical sciences.
· We suggest that the terminal-year AP biology course provide inten-
sive treatment of a few topics in molecular biology, cell biology, physiology,
evolution, and ecology. Emphasis should be on experimental design, ex-
perimentation and observation, data analysis, and critical reading. Thus,
the course cannot be modeled after existing college courses, which broadly
cover all biology. Engaging students in direct investigations of natural
phenomena without attempting to "cover" the subject matter of the in-
troductory college biology course is judged by this committee to be more
educationally sound than the current program. A rigorous examination de-
voted to problem-solving that requires the application of biological concepts
should accompany such a revision.
· This course should be taught only by teachers both capable of
providing a sophisticated and broad knowledge of biology and having the
ability, training, experience, resources, and time to oversee an independent
experimental approach. For example, a teacher who has not had first-
hand experience in independent research should not be assigned to teach
AP biology. Specific inservice training and certification should be used to
ensure that only qualified teachers teach the AP course. The College Board
should take initiatives to see that the program meets those more demanding
specifications, but school administrators must understand and cooperate as
well. If AP science courses are to be offered, there should be a line item
in the school budget to support them, and they should not be given at the
expense of regular science laboratory activities.
· The premise that AP courses provide college credit is not necessarily
flawed; however, the nature of what the credit is for needs examination. A
second course giving instruction in scientific reasoning, based on experimen-
tal design, and using sophisticated physical, chemical, and mathematical,
as well as biological, principles would in fact provide better preparation
for college than the present broad review. Colleges and high schools should
both recognize the value of a second course in experimental science taken
at the end of high school. Such a course need not be sponsored by the
College Board or be designated "advanced placement."
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
A CAPSTONE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE IN SCIENCE
Rationale: Integrating Science and Society
After leaving high school, many persons become public officials, civic lead-
ers, corporate officers, or holders of other positions who must reach conclusions
on issues that have scientific content and require integration of multidisciplinary
information. Moreover, all students become eligible to vote, and the general
public needs greater understanding of how different kinds of information are
related to societal problems. Courses in specific sciences or other disciplines
are unable, by themselves, to provide appropriate experience in integrating
information from disparate sources. Furthermore, entry-level courses do not
provide appropriate depth of laboratory, library, and community experience to
generate and assess such information. We are concerned that courses offered as
"science, technology, and society" (STS) usually do not follow a study of the
basic sciences. Instead, they typically replace basic-science courses, and that
results in both a dilution of fundamental knowledge of basic sciences and a
lack of the scientific breadth needed to study interdisciplinary topics more than
superficially. Although in the teaching of basic science new facts and concepts
must be related to the learner's understanding of the world, we see danger in
formats that confuse scientific knowledge with political, economic, and moral
judgment. The contribution of science to the solution of societal problems can
be understood only when there is considerable understanding of science itself.
We propose that an interdisciplinary "capstone" course be offered in the
last year of high school, after students have already taken courses in biology
and the physical sciences. The course would consider examples of current,
major scientific technological-societal problems. It should use an integration
of scientific, social, ethical, economic, political, and other disciplines to reach
conclusions. Such a course would not be a simple extension of the science
courses taken, but instead would focus on the integration of biological and
physical sciences with the humanities and social sciences through consideration
of contemporary problems. Such a course should not be substituted for chemistry
and physics.
Organization and Content
The capstone course could be offered as a series of projects and could
be taught by a team of teachers with particular interests in the individual
topics relevant to the projects. The specific topics could be selected on the
basis of the teachers' interests and expertise. The lead teacher should have
advanced training in science. Examples of topics that could be included in
the course today are acid rain; agricultural biotechnology; human applications
of biotechnology; toxic wastes and pollution of groundwater; technology and
development of the less-developed countries; environmental values; nuclear
energy, fossil fuels, renewable energy, and commercial power requirements;
and the ecological, sociological, and economic impacts of population growth.
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OTHER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEA ClIING SCIENCE
89
The topics used need not have simple or even scientific answers. Students
should define an issue, delineate the scope of the problem, and discuss the range
of possible solutions, as well as the limits of available information. During
analysis of the topic, students should debate the pros and cons, and teachers
should not provide "answers." Thus, students will encounter the complexities
of science and society firsthand and will recognize that simple answers are
rarely possible or appropriate. The outcome of each project should include a
comprehensive report written by each student that presents a description of the
problem, alternative approaches and hypotheses, available data, and conclusions
and recommendations. The writing component is essential: it not only ensures
integration of information, but also requires the student to express analyses and
conclusions clearly and concisely.
The capstone experience is not intended as an advanced-placement course.
It should provide increased depth and breadth of knowledge in science and
other disciplines and experience in weighing different kinds of information in
making decisions. But it should be considered a course in science.
Benefits and Costs
The primary benefit of the capstone course is the educational reward to
students in discovering interdependences, complexities, dilemmas, ambiguities,
and the need to synthesize information in designing solutions to society's
problems. Such a course will develop skills in reading critically and will foster
understanding that scientific inquiry is open-ended and that studying science is
not simply reading and memonzing. Where appropriate resources are available,
the capstone course can facilitate the use of technology in the analysis of
data (e.g., use of computers to analyze data both graphically and numencally),
as well as provide direct experience in conducting literature searches. It can
also allow the development of relationships with resource persons and agencies
in the community and provide new mechanisms for teachers to participate in
continuing inservice training and development.
A capstone course cannot be implemented without incurring substantial
costs and difficulties or without rethinking of teaching practices. Incremental
resources obviously will be needed to develop and test curricula, buy equipment,
train teachers, and revise curricula continuously. Expenence at the high-school
level in designing and teaching interdisciplinary courses is sparse. New inservice
programs and support will be required, as will modification and improvement
of the curriculum.
Recommendations
· Materials and syllabi for the capstone course need to be developed
and tested before widespread adoption can be expected. Curricula for a
variety of topics should be developed and tested, with models for inservice
support for teachers. New materials should be developed, and existing ma-
terials identified and modified. Carefully designed evaluation problems to
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
assess student outcomes should be part of the development and field-testing
program. With appropriate foundation or other support, the development
of the course could occur through a program of competitive grants to
high schools, local school districts, or partnerships between the latter and
interested university faculty or industry scientists. Some models for such a
course exist in colleges and universities, and that experience should be ex-
ploited wherever possible. Where available, regional mathematics-science
centers could participate in the design, testing, and evaluation of pilot pro-
grams, as well as revision of actual programs. Sufficient financial support
should be provided to ensure not only the introduction of projects, but
also their long-term monitoring, evaluation, revision, and the necessary
inservice opportunities for engaging additional teachers.
· Accompanying the development of modules for the capstone course,
there needs to be an overarching process of evaluation that not only
identifies the best modules, but provides a mechanism for their widest use.
That means not only making materials available, but providing guidance
and support for teachers who are new to the program. The involvement of
more than one teacher and the use of resource people are highly desirable
and should be the case wherever possible. Few teachers, even at the
university level, are comfortable in taking on such a course by themselves,
and part of the message that should be conveyed to students is that people
must cooperate in addressing complex issues.
THE ROLES OF SPECIAL SCIENCE SCHOOLS AND CENTERS
Several types of specialized settings offer intensive programs in science
and mathematics, usually for talented and "gifted" students. At the high-school
level, they can be loosely categorized as follows:
.
Traditional urban public high schools that offer specialized curricula in
science and mathematics.
Newer urban public schools referred to as magnet schools.
· State-sponsored residential schools of science and mathematics.
· Local and regional centers for science and technology that present
science courses. Students attend the centers for part of the school day and par-
ticipate there in a wide variety of activities involving science and mathematics.
Older, Specialized Public High Schools
Some large urban areas have long publicly supported high schools with
college-preparatory curricula that emphasize science and mathematics. Admis-
sion to those public high schools is highly competitive and is often based on
results of entrance examinations or other measures of performance or ability.
The schools tend to serve "gifted" students. They offer more laboratory work
than regular schools, and many are linked to local firms and research labora-
tories that provide equipment, mentors, and opportunities for participation in
research (OTA, 19881. Teachers are encouraged to devise new curricula and
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OTlIER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE
91
to develop new teaching materials in collaboration with their colleagues. New
York City has several long-standing examples: Bronx High School of Science,
Brooklyn Technical High School, and Stuyvesant High School. Philadelphia's
Central High School, although not exclusively for science and mathematics,
provides talented students with a wide variety of enriching activities, opportuni-
ties for independent study, seminars, and extracurricular experiences. Baltimore
Polytechnic Institute is another well-known example.
Magnet Schools
Magnet schools were recently introduced as vehicles for desegregation, as
well as improved education, and are playing an increasing role in urban systems.
They provide opportunities for all students to enroll in programs that interest
them, rather than restricting entrance on the basis of ability. Most magnet
schools share several characteristics. First, they feature a special curricular
theme or method of instruction, which in some instances focuses on science
and mathematics. Second, within a district magnet schools play a role in
voluntary desegregation. Students and parents can choose a school, and there is
open access to students from beyond the immediate school zone (Blank, 1989~.
Magnet schools can be found at the elementary, middle, and secondary levels.
Magnet schools have grown markedly in number and influence, particularly
in the last 5 years, and there are now more than 1,000 (OTA, 1988~. According
to Blank (1989), the average urban school district with a magnet-school program
has over 50% more students in magnet schools than in 1983. In the average
urban district, about 20% of students are in magnet schools, and the demand is
. .
ncreasmg.
A national study identified four major factors contributing to the growth
of local interest in magnet schools (Blank, 1989, p. 4~:
Development of a voluntary approach to school desegregation.
· Interest in educational options and diversity in curricular offerings
(such as advanced programs, arts, science, and foreign languages) and in school
organization (such as alternative schools, open schools, traditional or basic
education, and individualized instruction) with the objective of improving the
overall quality of education in a district.
· Greater attention to the outcome of public education, including prepa-
ration of students for careers and preparation for decisions on further education
or training.
· Renewed concern with the quality of education on the part of commu-
nity leaders, parents, and educators, as exemplified by the well-known report of
the National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk (19831.
Magnet schools advance educational equity by attracting students with com-
mon educational interests, but diverse abilities and socioeconomic backgrounds.
The heterogeneity of students is accomplished by providing educational experi-
ences generally not available in the other public schools in the area.
Studies have been conducted to determine whether the goals of magnet
schools have been reached. In some cases, assessment involves only the effects
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FULFILLING THE PROMISE
of magnet schools on desegregation and on the choice and diversity of curricular
offerings; such assessment shows that magnet schools meet these goals. Few
districts, however, assess the deeper educational effects of magnet schools, and
most are content if the schools meet the mechanical objectives of the program.
For example, interest in assessing the educational effects of magnet schools on
students with a wide range of backgrounds and abilities is usually modest, if
the district's primary motivation for magnet schools is desegregation (Blank,
1989).
With the growth of magnet schools as an important element in urban
public education, several important policy issues have emerged. Although
magnet schools were designed to serve students who seek the opportunities
offered by choice and diversity, there is growing concern that magnet schools
do not serve students who are at risk or students who are most likely to
drop out of school. Thus, the goals of educational equity are not being met.
Some are also concerned that the popularity of magnet schools is causing a
division of public education into two tiers: a set of schools that offer special
opportunities for some students and neighborhood schools that offer education
of lower quality for the remaining students (Blank, 1989~. Those issues are
sharpened by the lack of hard information on the educational accomplishments
of magnet schools. Research to address the latter question requires sophisticated
analysis of many variables measures of student outcomes in both magnet and
nonmagnet schools, longitudinal studies of both student populations, analyses of
district and school policies and organization, and so forth (Blank, 1989~. Few
districts have conducted such a study, but, as costs of magnet schools increase,
studies will be needed to justify increased expenditures.
Residential Schools for Science and Mathematics
A relatively new experiment in fostering quality education is the residential
school for science and mathematics. Six are operating, and plans are being
made to open residential schools soon in several other states. Admission is
highly selective and is based on results of admission tests and high ability in
the sciences and mathematics. Students are drawn from schools throughout
their own states. The schools are state-supported, and instructors, also chosen
from a highly competitive applicant pool, are given free reign to develop the
curriculum. With one exception, the residential schools offer 2-year intensive
programs in science and mathematics that are supplemented by core courses
in the humanities; the school in Illinois is a 3-year institution. In addition,
several of the schools plan to serve as resource centers for inservice training
of teachers and as centers for developing and testing new science curricula and
laboratories. To facilitate exchange of information among the schools what is
working and what is not, sources of additional funding, and ideas for improving
curricula-they have formed a National Consortium for Specialized Secondary
Schools of Mathematics, Science and Technology, headquartered at the Illinois
Mathematics and Science Academy.
The residential schools have been in existence only for a short time; the
oldest, the North Carolina School for Science and Mathematics, was established
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OTHER MODES AND CONTEXTS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE
93
in 1980. Therefore, there are few data indicating whether students who attend
them go on to study science, mathematics, or engineering in college. A recent
survey, however, found that 80% of the graduates of the North Carolina School
majored in science and engineering in college (OTA, 19881.
Centers for Science and Technology
Centers for science and technology offer another alternative for students
interested in science. They are private and publicly funded regional centers
that offer advanced courses in science and technology to students from many
high schools. Students usually spend half their in-class time at their home
schools and attend the science and technology centers specifically for their
science classes. In some instances, they can earn college credit. Students are
also encouraged to participate in scientific research projects with local mentors.
Some centers have begun to develop new curricula and instructional materials
and serve as resource centers for local high-school teachers.
Appendix E lists examples of each type of school discussed above.
Recommendations
· The relative autonomy of both state-sponsored residential schools
for science and mathematics and the centers for science and technology pro-
vides a unique opportunity for these institutions to serve as "laboratories"
for curricular reform. In addition to providing high-quality instruction,
they should be encouraged to continue in the development of new curricula,
instructional materials, and techniques for assessment. They can also serve
as inservice centers for local high-school teachers. For educational exper-
iments to have maximal impact nationally, mechanisms should be devised
for comparing and assessing the programs at the residential schools and
regional centers and disseminating the resulting information broadly.
· Research is required to assess the educational effects of magnet
schools both on their students and on the associated neighborhood schools.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
biology course
