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OCR for page 41
The Relationship Between Strategies of
Social Development and Environmental Protection
MICHAL J. MAREK
Institute of Public Administration and Management
Warsaw
ANDRZE3 T. KASSENBERG
Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization
Polish Academy of Sciences
Different concepts of social development will be described in this
chapter to demonstrate how they influence approaches to problems of the
natural environment. These concepts are described here as existing or
potential dominant paradigms, i.e., basic perceptions, thoughts, and actions
related to a given view of reality (Herman, 1975; Linstone et al., 1977;
Wyka, 1987~. In such considerations, alternative thinking proves useful
(Suchodolski, 1981; Picht, 1981~. Within this context, different aspects of
environmental protection in Poland will also be discussed.
Such a discussion might allow us:
· to see the present form of development and environmental protec-
tion as relative, not as absolute;
· to understand not only how to improve the existing solutions but
also to determine possible ways of identifying new approaches;
· to show more clearly the relationships between development and
concepts of environmental protection;
· to enhance chances for planned evolutionary development instead
of a series of cnses;
· to accustom ourselves to thinking about the future and to encourage
working for its sake;
· to discharge part of our obligations to future generations following
the principle of due care (the French concept of obligation de moyens) and
not of results (~obligation de resultat) (Domanski, 1972; Gr~ybowski, 1981~;
· to integrate partial solutions currently dispersed in various branches
of science;
· to identify barriers to possible adaptations of future societies, the
nature of these barriers, and the difficulties associated with them;
41
OCR for page 42
42
ECOLOG CAL RISKS
· to limit resistance even towards radical change, caused not neces-
sarily by the negation of reasonability of the solution but by the uncertainty
about the character of the costs associated with change;
· to create pilot solutions on a regional or local scale which may
facilitate the development of spatial organization on a wider scale (i.e., a
country or a group of countries);
· to introduce new, important modifications to solutions which al-
ready exist.
The ideas presented in this chapter pertain to various forms of progress.
However, within the framework of this brief account we did not attempt:
to outline alternative forms of progress, i.e., economic, technologi-
cal, organizational, and scientific;
1981~;
to apply the holistic approach (Boulding, 1970; Sahal, 1977; Brown,
to relate our discussion to the reality of those countries which
greatly influence the ecological status of the world (e.g., Brazil, the United
States, Canada, and the USSR);
to present analysis concerning the feasibility of particular concepts
and the scenarios leading to them;
· to present a vision of a world disaster as equally possible as a vision
of progress.
The analysis which follows merely signals some issues of future development
and environmental protection.
THE EXISITING PARADIGM
Authors dealing with the idea of social progress indicate that the
time in which it serves as a dominant paradigm is short. Dawson (1938)
emphasizes that each period in the history of civilization holds characteristic
ideas as its particular property. These ideas were considered not merely as
popular ideas of the time but as eternal truths and thus understandable,
regardless of the method of reasoning applied.
In the 18th century, the idea of progress started to dominate the social
awareness in many countries of Europe (Mounter, 1948~. In spite of a
widespread following, the idea of progress remains very equivocal; thus,
efforts of researchers have concentrated on identifying common elements in
diverse ideas of the meaning of progress. Most of all, it is anthropocentric
oriented exclusively towards humans, with its broadly understood goal the
prosperity of Homo sapiens. Moreover, as pointed out by J. Dalvaille
(1910), progress encompasses the concept of improvement (i.e., what was
in the past is poorer than achievements of the future); the concept of
OCR for page 43
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
43
novels (i.e., all that is old will be replaced by something different and
better); and the concept of permanent growth and accumulation (i.e., the
constant gathering of material property). This view of economic growth
has been very popular in modern societies since the 18th century. Studies
by S. Kuznets (1971) clearly indicate that since several countries entered the
stage of modern development, GNP has increased by an average of 3% per
annum while the gross product per capita has increased by an average of
2% per annum. This means a five-fold increase in gross product per capita
and at least a similar increment in GNP during one century. Such data
support the classification of the last one and one-half to two centuries as a
new economic era.
Economic progress is closely linked with developments
In science,
technology, and organization. Some scientists maintain that if there had
been no development in technology and if progress had been based on
multiplying existing solutions, the most developed countries of the world
probably would have achieved only about 20% of the rate of growth
observed so far (Beranek, 1978~.
For several decades, human activity was based on the assumption of
an unlimited supply of natural resources (Krader, 1970~. There has, of
course, always been an understanding in economics and in everyday life
that resources are scarce in the short term and that allocation or rationing of
those resources is often necessary. The difference lies in the perception of
the longterm. Historically, the world was viewed as a "bundle of hay," i.e.,
once its resources were used, they could not be replenished (Jonston, 1960~.
Ultimately, the world's resources would diminish and progressive poverty
would ensue. Approximately 50 years ago, the argument was developed
that resources could expand with greater knowledge and technology and
thus the world would become a "field of grass" that would be able to
continuously replenish itself (Zimmerman, 1951; Barnet and Morse, 1963~.
More recently, beginning in the late 1960s and popularized by the Club
of Rome, the opinion that there might actually be limits to the world's
natural resources, even in the long term, has come full circle (Meadows et
al., 1972; Russell, 1988~.
The brief, general description presented above ignores the distinct dif-
ferences between the specific patterns of development existing in particular
countries and regions of the world (Kerr et al., 1964~. These specifics are
crucial to better understanding the relationship between social development
and environmental protection. For example, this chapter will focus on the
situation existing in Poland, where the domestic economy has proven to
be very inefficient. This has been attributed to inherent characteristics
within the Polish system, as is widely recognized now. Through the mid-
1980s, a supreme role was granted to state-owned property. The creation
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44
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
TABLE 1 Companson of environmental situation in Poland and six COMECON countries
(excluding the USSR) in the mid-1980s (expressed as percent of Europe).
Issues
Poland COMECON (6)
Population 7 23
Terntory 6 20
GNP 3 12
Consumption 8 27
Emission of SO2 (a) 11 38
Emission of solid particulate (b) 26 53
(a) The smallest European countries and Romania were excluded because of the lack of
reliable data. Therefore, emissions in Poland are slightly lower than reported here.
(b) Fifteen countries were included: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Prance, Greece, Spain,
Holland, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland, Portugal, FRG, Switzerland, and Sweden.
Therefore, emissions in Poland are lower by several percent than reported here.
SOURCE: T. Zylicz (in press)
TABLE 2 Comparative data on anti-pollution investments expressed as percent
of GNP.
Year Poland Holland USA FRG Bulgaria Hungary
1975 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 -
1976 0.4 - 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4
1977 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.5
1978 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.6 -
1979 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.8
1980 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.6
1981 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.6
1982 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.6 0.5
1983 0.4 -- 0.2 -- 0.6 —
SOURCE: A. Budzikowski, 1988.
of an enterprise, its size, and specialization were the result of administra-
tive decisions by the central government or a particular minister. In this
system, bankruptcy could not exist. The country's economy was organi-
zationally dominated by state-owned enterprises (particularly monopolistic
enterprises); the state also maintained a monopoly in foreign trade, re-
sulting in the isolation of the domestic market from competitive foreign
products.
Poland also had a centrally planned economy, with the economic
goals of the state-owned enterprises established by the central planner.
The central planner also specified ways in which goals should be achieved
(e.g., determining prices, wages, salaries, etc.~. The primary concern of
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ENY7RONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
45
managers of state-owned enterprises was not profit but to achieve the goals
established in the government's economic plan. Under these conditions, no
managerial system (including environmental) could be very effective.
The resultant inefficiency of the Polish economic system has meant:
· A long-standing central government policy to develop heavy industry.
Currently, 41.1% of all industrial capital is invested in industry (Statistical,
1986~. Simultaneously, outdated technologies dominate, and coal is used
as virtually the only source of energy. This results in a very high level of
pollution, as is illustrated in Table 1.
· An insufficient amount of financial resources allocated for environ-
mental protection. The share in GNP of all anti-pollution investments is
equal or even higher in Poland to that of developed countries (bible 2~.
However, the efficacy of the investment process (measured by comparison
of ejects to outlays) is at least two times lower than that in France or
West Germany. In addition, the anti-pollution equipment that is installed
is often outdated and of poor quality. The negative impacts of this situation
on the environment are presented in other chapters of this boot
· An ever-increasing use of raw materials and energy in all sectors of
the economy. ~ measure the consumption of raw materials, Sitnicki (1986)
compared the net output of material production in Poland to its material
costs. The results produced are the following: 1.3% in 1960, 1.34% in
1978, and 1.41 in 1981%. During the period 1960-1978, consumption of
raw materials increased by 3.1% and from 1978-1981 it increased even
more, by 5.2%.
Other experts have estimated the losses of raw materials in all phases
of the industrial process, from mining minerals to manufacturing final
products. According to Ney (1983), these losses are substantial, equaling
38% for copper, 50% for zinc, 55% for lead, 46% for sulfur, 72% for
pit~oal, and 78% for brown coal. These data suggest that the utilization
of raw materials is extensive in Poland.
In the mid-197Qs, the consumption of energy decreased in Poland, but
in the period 1979-1982 it increased by 80 million tons of coal equivalent
when compared with 1975. This amount of energy is equal to 100 million
tons of pit-coal, which is worth 4.5-5 billion U.S. dollars (Albinowski, 1988~.
According to most estimates, present energy consumption in Poland is 2.5-3
times higher per unit of GNP than in developed countries of the European
Economic Community (EEC) (Szpilewicz, 1977; Chandler, 1987~.
Poland's inability to transform itself into an important supplier of
industrial products to the world market in spite of the existence within its
territory of rich supplies of raw materials has shaped Poland's export model
to emphasize the export of raw materials (e.g., copper, pit- and brown coal,
silver, sulfur, and timber) as well as intermediate products. This puts
OCR for page 46
46
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
pressure on the natural environment and limits Poland's economic growth
due to a deficit of energy, difficult geological conditions for mining, and
the deterioration of forests which are exploited too intensively (Molenda,
1974~.
· The extensive use of land. The average harvest in Poland of four
crops (~ye, wheat, barley, and oats) is equal to 0.3 metric tons per hectare;
in West Germany it is equal to 0.5 metric tons, even though the agro-
ecological conditions are comparable in both countries. This means that
Poland is still unable to carry out its own conservation reserve program
for crop production on idle cropland which is highly credible or located
adjacent to streams, lakes, or estuaries, as is done elsewhere (Thiede, 1975;
Wolcott et aL, 1988~.
However, in the late 1980s, the Polish economy started to undergo
dramatic and rapid changes. In the newly-created system:
.
the central planners decide only general trends of development,
and the market is recognized as an important regulator of economic life;
· enterprises are steered by economic tools (e.g., taxes, prices, and
discount rates) to a much greater extent than before;
.
· foreign investment is possible;
profit is used as a criterion for enterprise evaluation;
bankruptcy of enterprises is possible;
the first attempts to create a capital market have been observed;
favorable conditions to create all kinds of small firms exist, thereby
granting more economic freedom to individuals;
.
government.
regional and local authorities are less dependent on the central
Under these new reforms, each domestic managerial system can be
much more effective than before. Despite these promising changes, how-
ever, the severity of the environmental crisis in Poland, compounded by
the weakness of the economy, makes rapid progress in the field of environ-
mental protection impossible. It is apparent that the deterioration of the
natural environment in Poland is a limit to growth, but it is also clear that
a lack of growth is a limit to environmental protection. It is very difficult
to stop such a vicious circle.
~day, developed countries are able to effectively handle more envi-
ronmental problems than can Poland. Still, substantial changes have been
initiated due to the understanding that we live in a world of scarce re-
sources, requiring a search for new approaches to social development and
the environment.
OCR for page 47
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
A NEW ANTHROPOCENTRIC PARADIGM:
HUMAN HEALTH AND QUALITY OF LIFE
47
One of the attempts to abandon (or rather modify) the dominant
paradigm can be found in the concept of the "Social Indicator Movement"
which has developed since the late 1960s. Researchers affiliated with
this movement maintain that the indices of national income and GNP
are not sufficient for analysis of human well-being. They suggest the
introduction of systems of measures termed "the level and quality of life"
(Rutkowski, 1984~. In such considerations, scientists turn their attention
to three components of social reality: the ability to satisfy social needs,
the degree to which these needs are satisfied (in cases where this can be
determined in an objective way), and the assessment by society of satisfying
needs (Rutkowski, 1987~.
Problems of quality of life in Poland will be presented with a focus on
mortality issues, since they are both crucial and well documented. The rate
of mortality in Poland is much higher than the rate in developed countries,
particularly for the male population (Figure 1~. In 1984, the average death
rate for men was 1,069 cases per 100,000 people, exceeding the death rate
for women by 17%. Substantial differences also exist among particular
regions of Poland (Velrose, 1984~. In this case the highest level of mortality
surpasses the lowest by 32.6% (Szarski, 1985~. Fifty percent of all deaths
in Poland are caused by respiratory and heart disease, with an additional
25% caused by cancer, accidents, and intoxication (Dzienio, 1984~.
Current concepts of quality of life are based on contemporary views
of family, health, and public safety. Future concepts will probably be con-
cerned with the same elements but understood in a different way. As
pointed out by Rodenstein (1986), in ancient times the science of dietetics
was developed to treat health issues in a highly integrated manner
addressing social and biological aspects simultaneously. This strongly
echoes the contemporary philosophy of the unity of the world (macro-
cosm) and man (microcosm). Later, in the development of European
culture, this philosophy ceased to exist, resulting~in the consideration of
human health on a much smaller scale, e.g., in terms of a patient/doctor
relationship.
This attitude persists today, allowing effective control of infectious
diseases but not chronic ones. The prevention of chronic disease is regarded
by specialists as requiring increased control of the individual over his own
health. Thus, modern medicine tries to influence human social behavior
as well as the social and ecological environment. The environment will be
considered healthy if it helps people to develop their various abilities to
improve quality of their lives. This new approach demands a new philosophy
that would combine the social and purely medical approaches to health into
OCR for page 48
48
180tt,
17~7,
1 60';;
150~;
140ri,
1 30'/,
130~/,
11~/,
10~,
90~/,
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
\\
\
\ +
o \\ \
° of\ \ o
\ + W o /
on 'A ~
Con + "
35 - 39 years,/\
40 - 44 years ,< o -
~ 0
50 - 54 years /
—
', -~(
I ~ "
,' O ,' /
I · +/
it- it/ ·
/ TV / )~ 45 - 49 years
° / ../ ~
\ \
~ ~ O ~ \ .00
o '/ ~ /" ' O·
~ TO
~ / / - o
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 i980 1985
FIGURE 1 Mortality rates of males (age 35-59) in Poland as compared to the Federal
Republic of Germany. Data on mortality rates in the Federal Republic of Germany were
not available to the authors, therefore 1980 mortality rates were used for both 1980 and
1985 as a base for comparison with Poland.
one entity. Therefore, Rodenstein expects the ultimate development of a
holistic theory similar to ancient dietetics.
The health of an individual usually depends strongly on his economic
position. This holds true not only in poor countries but in wealthy ones,
as well. It has been estimated, for example, that Canadian males from the
highest income group could expect an additional 14 years of life free of
activity restrictions when compared to males from the lowest income group.
For the wealthiest females, the corresponding advantage amounted to an
additional 8 years of life (Wilkins, 1983~. Similar relationships were found
in statistics regarding the frequency of lung and breast cancer (Davessa
and Diamonds, 1983; Kelsey and Hildreth, 1983~. Therefore, it may be
presumed that in the future there will be a continued drive towards elevating
OCR for page 49
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
49
the general standard of living, while solutions ensuring each individual good
health regardless of his socioeconomic status will also be developed.
Recently, three approaches toward the realization of this goal have
emerged. The first pertains to the change in human behavior in the areas
of food consumption, use of technical facilities, and ways of spending
free time. The second includes community activities like setting up self-
help groups and enhancing cooperation within neighborhoods to facilitate
common actions to further promote health. The third involves creating
solutions in the areas of urban planning, agriculture, and public safetr.
This trend had a great effect upon the new understanding of environmental
protection and management.
In 1975, European urban localities were inhabited by 67~and in
North America by 77~of their respective total populations. These figures
are expected to rise in the year 2025 to 88% and 93%, respectively (Hancock
and Duhl, 1986; UN Population Division, 1982~. These statistics alone are
reason enough to assign fundamental importance to urban solutions in
any consideration of qualifier of life. The previous conception of health as
a purely medical issue entails its consideration far removed from many
aspects of urban life. The emergence of new concepts, however, has led
to changes. The traditional idea of life quality issues subordinated to
economic development have also been questioned.
A brief characterization of the new shape of a city, although still not
completed, conveys a sense of future. According to Hancock and Duhl
(1986~:
A healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving those physical
and social environments and expanding those community resources which enable
people to mutually support each other in functions of life and in developing
their maximum potential.
Within the context of this definition of a city's health, the following param-
eters merit consideration:
quality of the physical environment;
stability and sustainability of an ecosystem;
strength of a mutually supportive community;
degree of public participation in decision making;
· meeting public need;
· access to a wide variety of experiences and resources;
a diverse, vital, and innovative city economy;
an optimum level of appropriate public health care; and
· high health standards.
These considerations show how important to this new concept of health
is the issue of urban populations living in a stable natural environment.
However, it is difficult to determine future solutions of this kind, as there
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50
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
are currently only assumptions based on the most recent theoretical and
practical achievements.
For example, during the early 1980s a building was erected in Vienna
according to the principle of alternative accommodation (die Alternanve-
wohnungen) with the support of the municipal authorities. This design was
created not by an architect but by a painter who is well known under the
pseudonym Hundertwasser. This building, in addition to walls, rooms, and
roofs of surprising shapes, contains playrooms for children and meeting
rooms for adults. Thus, facilities provide for further integration of inhab-
itants, which is very important in the new concept of health. Grass grows
on the steep parts of roofs, while flat roofs have summer gardens with trees
and shrubs which can also be found in niches in walls. In addition, a winter
garden is located inside the building (Otulak, personal communication).
The vegetation mentioned here not only improves conditions for recreation
but may also contribute to an improvement in urban climate after introduc-
ing such designs on a wider scale (Ryc~ywolska, 1987y, as well as facilitate
the stabilization and integration of intra~ity systems of green areas (e.g.,
parks). The main element of such an environmental stabilization in urban
areas would be provided by a few large protected areas of natural park,
which would probably be situated on the edges of cities and be of high
biological, aesthetic, and recreational value.
THE ECOLOGICAL PARADIGM
The discussion thus far has provided a brief outline of some features
of alternative development and the: spatial solutions resulting from it.
However, some other very important features were omitted, e.g., a new
view of agriculture and the relationship between current activities and the
welfare of future generations. Nevertheless, the above considerations help
to develop a potentially new concept of preservation and management of
the environment.
In the alternative development presented above, only anthropocen-
tric solutions are considered, i.e., those made solely with an intention to
satisfy human needs. A different approach emerges based on vitacentric
ideas. Both in Europe and the United States, a universal interpretation
of holy writings states that human nature dominates over any other form
of biological life (White, 1967; Zdziechowski, 1928; Nowosielski, 1982~.
The realization of vitacentric ideas calls for harmonizing human needs with
those of nature rather than denying them. These ideas are supplemented
by a new, equally important one: preserving full diversity of wildlife and
living systems in large carefully selected areas (Woodwell, 1978; World,
1978; World, 1982~. Moreover, the continuity of ecological systems and
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
51
the adequacy of abiotic conditions should also be ensured (Andrzejewski,
1980~.
It is also important to recognize the spatial conflicts that appear be-
tween ecological systems and remaining elements of spatial arrangements
similar to those occurring among natural, nondegraded systems (Wood-
well, 1985~. This approach can be envisaged on a pan-European scale,
encompassing many countries (e.g., EEC and COMECON), or for indi-
vidual countries. For most European countries, the latter suggestion is
the least attractive as activities carried out in a neighboring country may
disturb domestic ecosystems. The system of environmental protection and
management outlined here should maintain the following on a large scale:
ability to produce biomass;
· ecological balance, which is manifested by ecological stability;
· pools of genetic and ecological information;
· a spatial arrangement of ecosystems which would inhibit excessive
mobility of chemical elements, waters with dissolved chemicals, and rocks
and humus in both air and water (i.e., erosion); and
· complete matter cycling within possibly small area (Andrzejewski,
1984~.
In spatial terms, the above requirements may be satisfied by a type of
ecological structure in a given area (Kassenberg and Marek, 1986~. One
of the theoretical proposals of this kind is called an "Ecological System
of Preserved Areas," which would involve defining national, ecologically
diversified, adjoining areas including various ecological systems (Gacka-
Grzesikiewicz, 1977~. Such a system would include:
· basic elements (e.g., national parks) where biological life has the
best chance of survival;
· ecological areas that can link them together and serve as a buffer
against anthropogenic pressure; and
· ecological condors (at least one kilometer wide) to connect the
elements of the system where links of the aforementioned type are not
feasible.
Such a system could ensure proper spatial conditions for survival of non-
human forms of life by allowing them unrestricted penetration contacts,
exchange, and complement of genetic pools.
Before it is possible to define the shape of such a system, many
parameters have to be assessed for the whole country, such as the degree
of preserved abilities to regenerate the ecological systems (i.e., the level
and rate for regeneration of biomass, structures, and processes); and the
degree of mobility of chemical elements, waters, rock mass, and humus. 1b
date, it has not been possible to cover all of Poland by this kind of study.
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52
TABLE 3 Comparisons between various concepts of environmental protection.
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
CRITERIA CONSERVATION ECONOMIC- SOCIO- ECOLOGICAL
CONCEPT TECHNICAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CONCEPT CONCEPT CONCEPT
I. Man's attitude towards non-human forms of life and inanimate nature
,,_
PERCEPTION as an object (primary) as an as an as an
OF NATURE or subject-object object object subject-
(primary-secondary) object
KEYWORDS nature formations; natural quality of life; Ecological
OF THINKING specific ecosystems, resources; interests of System of
species, specimens; economic future Protected
selected formsofnon- effectiveness generations Areas (ESPA)
living nature (e.g., and its
land forms and elements
geological phenomena
FOCUS OF rarity of occurrence usefulness of satisfying present ecological balance
INTEREST of biological forms; natural needs for life, as a basis for
special significance resources health, security, proper conditions
for society (such as to satisfy aesthetic values for survival
cultural, aesthetic, economic needs and providing for of human and
gene banks,etc.) development of non-human
future generations forms of life
LIMITS OF inviolability of defined by defined by the inviolability
PERMISSIBLE functioning unity of existing needs of future of ecological
CHANGES IN nature in chosen economic needs end present balance within
CONDITION areas; preserving generations ESPA
OF NATURE single forms of nature
Also, many issues involved in creating an Ecological System of Preserved
Areas have not yet been solved by science. Thus, such a system may be
presented only theoretically at this time.
In conclusion, the principal differences between alternative anthro-
pocentric and vitacentric concepts of development presented above should
be emphasized. According to the former, all nonhuman forms of life can
be protected if they are regarded as useful to humans, while in the latter
concept these life forms are to be protected regardless of human needs.
The anthropocentric concept does not assume creating proper conditions
for survival of nonhuman forms of life, while the vitacentric concept makes
it an imperative of development.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ANI) MANAGEMENT
So far, we have distinguished two possible ways of thinking about
nature: anthropocentric and vitacentric. Within the former approach, the
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ENYIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
(TABLE 3, Continued)
53
CRITERIA CONSERVATION
CONCERT
ECONOMIC- SOCIO- ECOLOGICAL
TECHNICAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CONCEPI CONCEPT CONCEPT
II. Satisfaction of human needs vs. development of natural environment
PRIORITIES needslimited to satisfaction of satisfaction of satisfaction of
IN sightseeing, research needs does not needs does not needs does not
SATISFYING related to gene bank destroy economic destroy social destroy ecological
NEEDS balance balance balance of ESPA
COSIS OF - covering costs bearings costs bearing all
SATISFYING of present of present social present social
NEEDS social develop- developmentand development
ment with non- some costs of costs and costs
human fonns of future develop of future human
life and future ment and non-human
generations of development
humans
GAINING limited use of complete partial utilize- maintaining balance
NATURAL natural amenities utilization of tion of existing of ESPA along
RESOURCES existing natural natural potential with utilization
AND USING potential for for social devel- of remaining
NATURAL economic end opment; remaining pert of nature
AMENITIES social potential is for social
development reserved for development
the future
RECULTI- protection of natural recultivation of restoration of restoration of
VATION OF objects from natural environ- ecological balance balance in ESPA
NATURAL disturbances ment when when required by when there are
ENVIRON- satisfaction of life quality de- technical
MENT economic needs mends or interests possibilities
is threatened of future
generations
following concepts are now working or are now being introduced: conser-
vation (created by Humboldt in the 19th century), economic-technological
(a part of the existing paradigm), or socio-economic (a part of the new an-
thropocentric paradigm). The latter approach (vitacentric) gives a basis for
the development of a new ecological anti social concept within the ecolog-
ical paradigm, which also borrows from the conservationists' ideas. Thus,
conservation actually appears in both trends and represents the necessary
complement to any of the remaining concepts.
1b know more about all of these concepts, we tried to identify both
similarities and differences among them using a unified set of criteria. When
creating these criteria we assumed that they have to consider two issues:
attitudes of humans towards other forms of life and the abiotic environment,
and ways of satisfying social needs. The description of all these concepts
using these two groups of criteria is given in Table 3 (Kassenberg and
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54
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
Marek, 1989). As can be seen from this table, a separate principle has
been formulated for each concept and criterion.
The first arrow (pointing right) indicates the sequence of conceptual
development, with newer ideas incorporating some existing principles. The
arrow is drawn as a broken line to emphasize that it indicates only a
perceived, but not quite e~licit tendency. There is also an arrow pointing
left, since future trends might also influence current ones.
Different forms of social development and environmental protection
demand different interpretations of acceptable human pressure upon na-
ture. Idday, many newly invented substances are introduced into the
market. This is, of course, indispensable to stimulate economic develop-
ment and to better satisfy social needs. Also, environmental protection and
resource conservation often benefit from new synthetic materials which,
among other advantages, allow many enterprises to earn greater profits
than their competitors.
In Poland the producers' market prevails over that of consumers',
which means that there is no need to invent new synthetics to gain high
profit. In spite of this fact, many new chemicals are introduced to the
Polish market each year, because firms are often compelled to use new
compounds due to shortages in supplies necessary for production. As a
result, for instance, substances used for domestic dishwashing could legally
be made of more than 335 chemicals (Kiss, 1986~.
Use of new substances may bring advantages to society, but it also
creates many hazards for humans and the environment. Today two strategies
are generally applied in the field of social safety: to not test or regulate
chemicals at all, or to test chemicals and regulate only if the test reveals
serious adverse effects (Weinstein, 1979~.
In the past, the first laissez faire approach dominated due to lack
of proper knowledge. Currently, this strategy persisits in those countries
where governments do not have sufficient resources to organize proper
systems for societal protection, or where the domestic industry effectively
blocks all governmental activities in this area. In all developed (including
socialist) countries, the second strategy is obligatory, but its implementation
cannot do much to overcome many difficulties. First of all, new man-made
substances are very numerous. In the 1970s, specialists estimated that the
number of chemicals produced in the world had reached nearly half a mil-
lion. Moreover, thousands of new compounds have been added each year
according to UN estimates (Witosynski, 1977~. Many of these chemicals
can be mixed; and the mixtures that are created can be more danger-
ous than their components due to a synergistic effect. The abundance
of these substances and their compositions limits application of the test-
ing/regulation strategy, since studies of even one compound are expensive,
OCR for page 55
ENVIRONMENTAL ~4NAGEMENT CONCEPTS
55
time-consuming, demand sophisticated equipment and well-trained special-
ists, and still produce inconclusive results (Russell and Gruber, 1987; Oser,
1977~. There is also evidence that tested chemicals, though not dangerous
for animals exposed to them, still could cause adverse effects to humans.
Moreover, even in the case of proven carcinogenicity of a synthetic, its
use is often continued, e.g., asbestos and vinyl chloride in Poland, and
chlordane in the United States (U.S. News, 1987~.
Some experts maintain that existing safety strategies are very inefficient,
and suggest establishing new ones based on the following principles:
Act toward maximal risk elimination, conveying a new concept of safety
as a situation without risk Safety has been defined as "a situation with
negligible risk which is experienced by the population in the same way"
(Eggink 1980~. The rationale for accepting a new approach to risk could
be as follows:
Since it is difficult to determine the "safe" level of exposure to any suspect
chemical with any degree of confidence, the concept of "acceptable risk" and
"risk-benefit analysis" are emerging in counterpoint to the issue of "risk Wee
[life]. . ." (Schottenfeld and Haas, 19783.
Implement a new strategy of regulation of chemicals without testing, to
complement current testing/regulation strategies (Weinstein, 1979~. This
new strategy could:
minimize the number of newly invented chemicals in production
and commercial use;
activities;
minimize the number of chemicals used in social and economic
give priority to naturally occuring, as opposed to synthetic, chemi-
cals (Commoner, 1971~:
The third law of ecology suggests that the artificial introduction of an organic
compound that does not occur in nature, but is man-made and is nevertheless
active in a living system, is very likely to be harmful (Dubos, 1973~;
· give priority to the production of solid substances over liquids and
liquids over gases; and
· minimize the spatial scope and time of their presence in the envi-
ronment (Marek, 1987; Kassenberg and Marek, 1989~.
Such actions are based on the implicit assumption that "it was a mistake to
concede to chemicals the constitutional right to be judged innocent until
proven guilty" (Evans, 1987~.
This alternative strategy could be effective if new forms of social pres-
sure upon industry and government were exerted. Industry would positively
respond to the mass economic demand of the market for `'new safety." The
government would effectively act if, for instance, mass migrations of people
from the territories of low ecological standards occurred. Applications of
OCR for page 56
56
ECOLOGICAL RISKS
the new strategy should not limit fulfilling social needs, but rather help
to find new agreement between humans and nature. The approach could
encourage new technological innovations which would make it possible, for
example, to wash dishes or clothes in mechanical devices that do not require
the use of any chemicals. In fact, several pieces of such new equipment
already have been invented (Eljari, 1985; Gornig, 1986; Majer, 1985~.
This alternative approach does not necessarily deny the positive role
of many new substances for greater economic development and better
fulfillment of social needs. It tries rather to reduce significantly the number
of chemicals now in use without prior testing. Of course, this alternative
approach would be applicable only if many important questions could be
satisfactorily answered. For instance: What are the new criteria to exclude
use of a given synthetic? Who should pay for damages caused to the
producer? What socially adverse effects could result?
CONCLUSION
Several possible long-term trends concerning development and envi-
ronmental protection have been outlined in this chapter. It would appear
that for next several decades Poland will be almost entirely preoccupied
with strengthening its economy by lowering natural limits to growth and
reversing high mortality rates. For this reason, healthy cities or an ecologi-
cal grid in Poland will probably remain of low social priority, and therefore
will be discussed within a time frame of many years rather than in the
immediate future. In developed countries, however, social priorities could
be quite different. Large agricultural areas are now abandoned, so that
creation of an ecological grid could be a current issue in these countries.
Strong economies could also afford creation of healthy cities.
In Poland, of course, scientific priorities will be shaped in accordance
with those of the national economy. This does not necessarily mean that
studies of the relationship between social development and natural environ-
ment, which are not for immediate application, will be neglected. Analyses
of this kind can help Polish society to take into account the problems
of tomorrow while resolving the problems of today. Also, Poland could
be involved in international environmental programs based on European
priorities different from its own. Finally, specific interests of concerned
specialists will also stimulate other new studies in this field.
Acknowledgement
Through discussion, comments, and translation, a number of peo-
ple contributed to the final version of this chapter. These include two
Americans Mary R. English and Milton Russell and four Poles—Zofia
OCR for page 57
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
57
Gadaj, Zygmunt Gadaj, Stanislaw Sitnicki, and Roman Tertil. The authors
thank all of these people for their time and help.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
raw materials
