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6
Mitigation
Greenhouse warming is a global phenomenon, an important fact with
regard to mitigation because releases of greenhouse gases have the same
potential effect on global climate regardless of their country of origin. An
efficient mitigation strategy for the United States would allow the United
States to take cooperative action in other countries; some of the most attrac-
tive low-cost mitigation options may be in the poorest developing countries.
This analysis of mitigation costs and the potential for reducing potential
greenhouse warming was developed by the Mitigation Panel and is derived
almost entirely from experience and data in the United States. The analyti-
cal framework is general, however, and could be applied in other countries.
The application of this framework to a diverse array of mitigation op-
tions is a pioneering effort. These "first-order" analyses are meant only to
be initial estimates of the cost-effectiveness of these options. They demonstrate
a method that can be used in determining appropriate mitigation options.
The intent is to illustrate the manner in which options should be evaluated
with the best estimates available.
This analysis is a cross-sectional, as opposed to a longitudinal, analysis
of options over time. It does not attempt, for example, to project future
levels of economic activity and their implications for greenhouse gas emis-
sions. The analysis does account, however, for future consequences of
current actions. The direct effect of each option on greenhouse gas emis-
sions is assessed. The panel does not examine those options under the
different overall emission rates that might occur at future times. This analysis
must therefore be seen as an initial assessment of mitigation options in
tees of their return on investment under current conditions. A subsequent
analysis should consider appropriate strategies under conditions existing at
the time.
47
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48
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
THE ROLE OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS
A mitigation strategy should use options that minimize effects on domes-
tic or world economies. Strategies therefore should be evaluated on the
basis of cost-effectiveness as well as other considerations.
Care must be
taken to ensure that estimates of both costs and effects are comparable.
Cost calculations, for example, need to use consistent assumptions about
energy prices, inflation, or discount rates. Benefits must be evaluated in
standard terms, such as the equivalent amount of CO2 emission reductions.
The cost of mitigation may include a number of components, some of
which are difficult to measure. Three different kinds of costs need to be
distinguished. First are direct expenditures to reduce emissions or otherwise
reduce potential greenhouse warming. These include, for example, the purchasing
of energy-efficient air conditioners or insulation. Second are long-term
investments that increase the overall efficiency of large-scale systems. Ex-
amples include investment in more efficient electricity generation and industrial
facilities. Third are possible substitutions among final goods and services
that require different amounts of energy. An example is the substitution of
public transit for private automobiles.
Current expenditures to reduce greenhouse warming are in principle the
easiest to measure because there generally are current market transactions
from which to obtain data. For longer-term capital expenditures, a discount
rate must be used to calculate the present value of costs so they can be
compared with costs of other options. Where major substitutions of final
goods or services are required, the full costs are difficult to determine. The
potential loss in value to consumers of the changes in consumption patterns
must be estimated.
TECHNOLOGICAL COSTING VERSUS ENERGY MODELING
There are two choices for estimating the costs of various mitigation op-
tions: "technological costing" and "energy modeling." Technological cost-
ing develops estimates on the basis of a variety of assumptions about the
technical aspects, together with estimates often no more than guesses of
the costs of implementing the required technology. This approach can be
useful for evaluating emerging technologies when it is hard to apply statis
tical methods to estimate costs from market data.
_ ~ 1: ~ ~ _ 1 _: .1 ~
Technological costing
relies 1mpllcluy on economic assumptions, and like energy modeling assumes
that direct costs are a good measure of total cost.
Energy modeling uses a variety of techniques to project energy uses and
supplies by region over time. Often, energy modeling uses data on prices
and quantities consumed to construct statistical behavioral relationships.
Unlike technological costing, energy models strive to ensure that the pro
OCR for page 49
MITIGATION
49
jections are internally consistent by keeping track of the overall relationship
between energy supplies and demands.
Neither approach is perfect. Technological costing studies are often
criticized as providing overly optimistic estimates. Their main weaknesses
are that they are not always consistent with observed market behavior and
that they sometimes fail to allow for impacts on quantities and prices in
other markets and therefore neglect "general equilibrium" effects of major
actions undertaken. Energy modeling analyses are challenged because of
weaknesses in model specification, measurement error, and questionable
relevance of historical data and behavior for future untested policy actions.
In this study, the cost-effectiveness indicators for mitigation actions are
derived mostly from technological costing rather than energy modeling analyses.
In some instances, these analyses show mitigation actions yielding a net
savings, implying that investment in these actions would yield a positive
economic return. Realizing such net savings, however, would require a set
of conditions not now in existence. In other words, achieving such savings
would require overcoming private or public barriers of various kinds. If
these impediments can be overcome at relatively low cost, society could
achieve substantial benefits from these actions, often even if greenhouse
warming were not a problem.
Technological costing and energy modeling are in rough agreement, given
the large uncertainties in the best available knowledge. This enhances the
credibility of the results.
PLANNING A COST-EFFECTIVE POLICY
Investment involves choosing among alternative uses of resources. Find-
ing the least-cost mix of responses to greenhouse warming entails comparing
all the different possible responses. Figure 6.1 illustrates that the least-cost
plan will probably involve a mix of responses. For simplicity, only two
hypothetical options are plotted. They are shown as curves giving the cost
for achieving various reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (or the equivalent:
removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, blocking of incident
radiation, or changing the earth's reflectivity). For comparability, all responses
are translated into CO2-equivalent emissions.
Both options exhibit increasing cost for increasing reductions in emis-
sion (the curves gradually bend upward). If the only alternative were to
achieve the desired level of reduction by choosing one option, the clear
preference would be option B. Option B produces each level of reduction at
lower cost (c") than option A (c').
If, however, it were possible to select some of option A and some of
option B. the greatest payoff would come from a mixture of the two. Option
B should be selected up to the point at which the cost of additional reduc
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50
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
lions with option B exceeds the cost of the first reductions with option A
(shown by the dashed line). Thereafter, the most cost-effective strategy
would be to select some of A and some of B until the desired level of
reduction is achieved.
Figure 6.2 extends the comparison to additional options with different
characteristics. Option C shows "negative cost," or net positive benefits,
associated with achieving the initial reductions in CO2 emissions. An ex-
ample is energy conservation, such as better insulating of hot water heaters
to reduce heat loss. The cost of insulating would be less than the cost of
adding electricity generating capacity if the conservation measures were not
implemented.
Option D illustrates a "backstop technology." A backstop technology
provides an unlimited amount of reduction at a fixed cost. An example
would be an abundant energy source that provides electricity with no CO2
emissions at all. Where a backstop technology exists, its cost sets a ceiling
on the investment in reducing emissions. Only options costing less than D
should be considered, no matter how much emission reduction is desired.
c
. _
Or
a) c,
cat
o
c:
,~
_ ,,,,
On
o
LL
-
LL
>
A / / B
l
/
/ /
/ /
/
j:/ /
r
EMISSION REDUCTION (t CO2 equivalenVyr)
FIGURE 6.1 A comparison of hypothetical mitigation options. Curves show the
costs of various levels of reduction in CO2-equivalent emissions. Total costs for the
period of the analysis are divided by the number of years, and all comparisons over
time are assumed to be on the same basis.
SOURCE: Chapter 2 of the report of the Mitigation Panel.
OCR for page 51
MITIGATION
| D
_^
-
.>
a)
cat
o
c'
i*
-
o
cat
LO
ret O
J
L1J
2
51
C
A I I B
/
EMISSION REDUCTION (t CO2 equivalenVyr)
FIGURE 6.2 A comparison of multiple mitigation options. Curves show the costs
of various levels of reduction in CO2-equivalent emissions for four hypothetical
mitigation options. Total costs for the period of analysis are divided by the number
of years, and all comparisons over time are assumed to be on the same basis.
SOURCE: Chapter 2 of the report of the Mitigation Panel.
The heavy line in Figure 6.2 shows the cost-effective combination of
options. Option C is selected up to the point at which option B becomes
more cost-effective. Option A is added when it becomes cost-effective.
The heavy line showing the cost-effective combination becomes horizontal
when the cost reaches that of the backstop technology.
AN ASSESSMENT OF MITIGATION OPTIONS
IN THE UNITED STATES
Several premises are central to the design of a well-conceived mitigation
policy. First, responses to greenhouse warming should be regarded as in-
vestments in the future of the nation and the planet. The actions required
will have to be implemented over a long period of time. They must, how-
ever, be compared to other claims on the nation's resources.
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52
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
Second, cost-effectiveness is an essential guideline. The changes in en-
ergy, industrial practices, land use, agriculture, and forestry that are likely
to be needed to limit emissions of greenhouse gases require investments
over time. These are likely to be large enough to affect the economy in
various ways. The sensible guideline is cost-effectiveness: obtaining the
largest reduction in greenhouse gas emissions at the lowest cost.
A true cost-effectiveness analysis of reducing greenhouse gas emissions
would measure only the costs of interventions taken solely because of greenhouse
warming. This is difficult in practice because many of these actions con-
tribute to several social goals, making it hard to distinguish the costs and
benefits attributable to greenhouse warming alone. There are two ways
such complications might be handled: by adding benefits to reflect contributions
to multiple goals or by reducing costs to reflect their allocation among
different goals. For example, eliminating CFC emissions would slow both
the depletion of the ozone layer and the onset of greenhouse warming. A
proper accounting of reducing CFC emissions would either assign additional
benefits to reflect those gained in the area of ozone depletion or reduce the
cost allocated to greenhouse warming proportionate to the contribution of
those actions to other goals. In either case, the cost-effectiveness ratio
would be improved if multiple social goals were considered. Similarly,
several actions that would reduce greenhouse gas emissions are mandated
by the Clean Air Act. A full cost-effectiveness analysis would account for
the fact that society has already decided to bear these costs, so that only
additional costs and benefits would be included in the analysis of greenhouse
warming. Limits on time and resources precluded complete analysis of
these complications in this study, and the results presented here should be
considered a first cut that points the way for further analyses.
Third, a mixed strategy is essential.
variety of options.
A least-cost approach produces a
A mixed strategy, however, requires comparison of
options in different sectors of the economy.
In comparing various mitigation options, this panel emphasizes three
factors. The first factor is the cost-effectiveness of the option. In calculating
cost-effectiveness, the panel converted reductions of all greenhouse gases
into CO2-equivalent emission reduction in order to be able to compare all
options on the same basis.
The second factor is the ease or difficulty of implementation of the option.
Although a particular option may be technically possible for relatively wealthy
countries, it may be precluded for social, economic, or political reasons.
These implementation obstacles are different for each option considered.
The panel estimates emission reductions that could be achieved if explicitly
defined feasible opportunities were executed. For example, one option calls
for reducing energy use in residential lighting by 50 percent through replacement
of incandescent lighting (2.5 interior light bulbs and 1 exterior light bulb
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MITIGATION
53
per residence) with compact fluorescent lights. Another option calls for
improving on-road fuel economy to 25 miles per gallon (32.5 mpg in Cor-
porate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) terms) in light vehicles by implementing
existing technologies that would not require changes in size or attributes of
vehicles. Each option is also evaluated in terms of an optimistic "upper-
bound" (100 percent achievement) or a pessimistic "lower-bound" (25 per-
cent) level of implementation. A brief description of the mitigation options
considered in this study is found in Table 6.1.
The third factor is the interconnectedness of the option to other issues in
addition to greenhouse warming, for example, destruction of the ozone layer
or biological extinction. These additional factors, however, were consid-
ered only in a qualitative manner and are part of the reason that recommen-
dations are not based solely on the cost-effectiveness calculations devel-
oped in this study.
Table 6.2 shows selected mitigation options in order of cost-effective-
ness. Some options, primarily in energy efficiency and conservation, have
substantial potential to mitigate greenhouse warming with net savings or
very low net cost. However, they have not been fully adopted because of
various implementation obstacles.
Net savings does not mean that no expenditure is required to implement
these options. Rather, it indicates that the total discounted cost of the
option over the period of analysis is less than its discounted direct benefit,
usually reduction in energy consumption, where the discount rate is 6 percent.
At higher discount rates the relative cost would rise. These are options that
ought to be, and probably will be, implemented, since they are in the inter-
ests of those who implement them. The decisions to start, however, can be
hastened through better information and incentives.
Table 6.2 also includes some options that are more costly, face substan-
tial obstacles to their implementation, or have other costs or benefits that
are difficult to characterize. For example, reduction of CFC consumption is
also beneficial in reducing stratospheric ozone depletion, and the combined
benefit derived for greenhouse warming and ozone depletion would raise
CFC control options in the ranking of preferred actions. Questions about
the appropriateness of current technologies and public opposition to nuclear
power, however, currently make this option difficult to implement. To the
extent that concern about greenhouse warming replaces concern about nuclear
energy and "inherently safe" nuclear plants are developed, this option increases
its priority ranking.
Table 6.3 presents what the panel calls geoengineering options. The
geoengineering options in this preliminary analysis include several ways of
reducing temperature increases by screening sunlight (e.g., space mirrors,
stratospheric dust, multiple balloons, stratospheric soot, and stimulating cloud
condensation nuclei) as well as stimulation of ocean uptake of CO2. Several
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54
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
TABLE 6.1 Brief Descriptions of Mitigation Options Considered in
This Study for the United States
RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Electricity Efficiency Measures
White SurfaceslVegetation
Residential Lighting
Residential Water Heating
Commercial Water Heating
Commercial Lighting
Commercial Cooking
Commercial Cooling
Commercial Refrigeration
Residential Appliances
Residential Space Heating
Commercial and Industrial
Space Heating
Commercial Ventilation
Reduce air conditioning use and the urban heat
island effect by 25% through planting veg-
etation and painting roofs white at 50% of
U.S. residences.
Reduce lighting energy consumption by 50% in
all U.S. residences through replacement of
incandescent lighting (2.5 inside and 1 out-
side light bulb per residence) with compact
fluorescents.
Improve efficiency by 40 to 70% through effi-
cient tanks, increased insulation, low-flow
devices, and alternative water heating systems.
Improve efficiency by 40 to 60% through resi-
dential measures mentioned above, heat pumps,
and heat recovery systems.
Reduce lighting energy consumption by 30 to
60% by replacing 100% of commercial light
fixtures with compact fluorescent lighting,
reflectors, occupancy sensors, and daylighting.
Use additional insulation, seals, improved heat-
ing elements, reflective pans, and other mea-
sures to increase efficiency 20 to 30%.
Use improved heat pumps, chillers, window
treatments, and other measures to reduce
commercial cooling energy use by 30 to 70%.
Improve efficiency 20 to 40% through improved
compressors, air barriers and food case en
closures, and other measures.
Improve efficiency of refrigeration and dishwashers
by 10 to 30% through implementation of new
appliance standards for refrigeration, and use
of no-heat drying cycles in dishwashers.
Reduce energy consumption by 40 to 60% through
improved and increased insulation, window
glazing, and weather stripping along with in-
creased use of heat pumps and solar heating.
Reduce energy consumption by 20 to 30%
using measures similar to that for the resi-
dential sector.
Improve efficiency 30 to 50% through improved
distribution systems, energy-efficient motors,
and various other measures.
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MITIGATION
TABLE 6.1 (continued
55
Oil and Gas Efficiency
Fuel Switching
INDUSTRIAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Co-generation
Electricity Efficiency
Fuel Efficiency
Fuel Switching
New Process Technology
Reduce residential and commercial building fos-
sil fuel energy use by 50% through improved
efficiency measures similar to the ones listed
under electricity efficiency.
Improve overall efficiency by 60 to 70% through
switching 10% of building electricity use from
electric resistance heat to natural gas heating.
Replace existing industrial energy systems with
an additional 25,000 MW of co-generation plants
to produce heat and power simultaneously.
Improve electricity efficiency up to 30~o through
use of more efficient motors, electrical drive
systems, lighting, and industrial process
modifications.
Reduce fuel consumption up to 30% by improv-
ing energy management, waste heat recovery,
boiler modifications, and other industrial process
enhancements.
Switch 0.6 quadsa of current coal consumption
in industrial plants to natural gas or oil.
Increase recycling and reduce energy consump-
tion primarily in the primary metals, pulp and
paper, chemicals, and petroleum refining in-
dustries through new, less energy intensive
process innovations.
TRANSPORTATION ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Vehicle Efficiency
Light Vehicles
Heavy Trucks
Aircraft
Use technology to improve on-road fuel economy
to 25 mpg (32.5 mpg in CAFEb terms) with no
changes in the existing fleet.
Improve on-road fuel economy to 36 mpg (46.8
mpg CAFE) with measures that require changes
in the existing fleet such as downsizing.
Use measures similar to that for light vehicles to
improve heavy truck efficiency up to 31 mpg
(40.3 mpg CAFE).
Implement improved fanjet and other technolo-
gies to improve fuel efficiency by 20% to
130 to 140 seat-miles per gallon.
(Table 6.1 continues)
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56
TABLE 6.1 (continued)
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
Alternative Fuels
Methanol from Biomass
Hydrogen from Nonfossil
Fuels
Electricity from Nonfossil
Fuels
Transportation Demand
Management
ELECTRICITY AND FUEL SUPPLY
Heat Rate Improvements
Advanced Coal
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
Biomass
Solar Photovoltaics
Solar Thermal
Replace all existing gasoline vehicles with those
that use methanol produced from biomass.
Replace gasoline with hydrogen created from
electricity generated from nonfossil fuel sources.
Use electricity from nonfossil fuel sources such
as nuclear and solar energy directly in trans-
portation vehicles.
Reduce solo commuting by eliminating 25 per
cent of the employer-provided parking spaces
and placing a tax on the remaining spaces to
reduce solo commuting by an additional 15
percent.
Improve heat rates (efficiency) of existing plants
by up to 4% through improved plant opera
. . .
lion ant maintenance.
Improve overall thermal efficiency of coal plants
by 10% through use of integrated gasifica-
tion combined cycle, pressurized fluidized-
bed, and advanced pulverized coal combus-
tion systems.
Replace all existing fossil-fuel-fired plants with
gas turbine combined cycle systems to both
improve thermal efficiency of current natural
gas combustion systems and replace fossil fuels
such as coal and oil that generate more CO2
than natural gas.
Replace all existing fossil-fuel-fired plants with
nuclear power plants such as advanced light-
water reactors.
Replace fossil-fuel-fired plants with remaining
hydroelectric generation capability of 2 quads.
Replace fossil-fuel-fired plants with remaining
geothermal generation potential of 3.5 quads.
Replace fossil-fuel-fired plants with biomass
generation potential of 2.4 quads.
Replace fossil-fuel' fired plants with solar pho-
tovoltaics generation potential of 2.5 quads.
Replace fossil-fuel-fired plants with solar ther-
mal generation potential of 2.6 quads.
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MITIGATION
TABLE 6.1 (continued)
57
Wind
CO2 Disposal
NONENERGY EMISSION REDUCTION
Halocarbons
Not-in-kind
Conservation
HCFClHFC-Aerosols, etc.
HFC-Chillers
HFC-Auto Air Conditioning
HFC-Appliance
HCFC-Other Refrigeration
HCFCIlIFC-Appliance
Insulation
Agriculture (domestic)
Paddy Rice
Ruminant Animals
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Landfill Gas Collection
GEOENGINEERING
Reforestation
Replace fossil-fuel-fired plants with wind gen-
eration potential of 5.3 quads.
Collect and dispose of all CO2 generated by
fossil-fuel-fired plants into the deep ocean or
depleted gas and oil fields.
Modify or replace existing equipment to use non-
CFC materials as cleaning and blowing agents,
aerosols, and refrigerants.
Upgrade equipment and retrain personnel to im-
prove conservation and recycling of CFC
materials.
Substitute cleaning and blowing agents and aerosols
with fluorocarbon substitutes.
Retrofit or replace existing chillers to use fluo-
rocarbon substitutes.
Replace existing automobile air conditioners with
equipment that utilizes fluorocarbon substi-
tutes.
Replace all domestic refrigerators with those us-
ing fluorocarbon substitutes.
Replace commercial refrigeration equipment such
as that used in supermarkets and transporta-
tion with that using fluorocarbon substitutes.
Replace domestic refrigerator insulation with
fluorocarbon substitutes.
Eliminate all paddy rice production.
Reduce ruminant animal production by 25%.
Reduce nitrogenous fertilizer use by 5%.
Reduce landfill gas generation by 60 to 65% by
collecting and burning in a flare or energy
recovery system.
Reforest 28.7 Mha of economically or environ-
mentally marginal crop and pasture lands and
nonfederal forest lands to sequester 10% of
U.S. CO2 emissions.
f(Table 6.1 continues)
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58
TABLE 6.1 (continuedJ
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
Sunlight Screening
Space Mirrors
Stratospheric DustC
Stratospheric Bubbles
Low Stratospheric DustC
Low Stratospheric SootC
Cloud StimulationC
Ocean Biomass Stimulation
Atmospheric CFC Removal
Place 50,000 100-km2 mirrors in the earth's or-
bit to reflect incoming sunlight.
Use guns or balloons to maintain a dust cloud in
the stratosphere to increase the sunlight re-
flection.
Place billions of aluminized, hydrogen-filled
balloons in the stratosphere to provide a re-
flective screen.
Use aircraft to maintain a cloud of dust in the
low stratosphere to reflect sunlight.
Decrease efficiency of burning in engines of air-
craft flying in the low stratosphere to maintain
a thin cloud of soot to intercept sunlight.
Burn sulfur in ships or power plants to form
sulfate aerosol in order to stimulate additional
low marine clouds to reflect sunlight.
Place iron in the oceans to stimulate generation
of CO2-absorbing phytoplankton.
Use lasers to break up CFCs in the atmosphere.
al quad = 1 quadrillion Btu = 10~5 Btu.
bCorporate average fuel economy.
CThese options cause or alter chemical reactions in the atmosphere and should
not be implemented without careful assessment of their direct and indirect consequences.
SOURCE: Chapter 1 1 of the Mitigation Panel report.
options, including space mirrors and removal of CFCs from the atmosphere,
are not included among those recommended for further investigation in
Chapter 9.
Geoengineering options appear technically feasible in terms of cooling
effects and costs on the basis of currently available preliminary information.
But considerably more study and research will be necessary to evaluate
their potential side-effects, including the chemical reactions that particles
introduced into the atmosphere might cause or alter. The data presented in
Table 6.3 were developed during the course of the study and represent
initial estimates. These or other options may, with additional investigation,
research, and development, provide the ability to change atmospheric con
~ . ,
centrations of greenhouse gases or the radiative forcing of the planet.
Geoengineering options have the potential to affect greenhouse warming on
a substantial scale. However, precisely because they might do so, and because
the climate system and its chemistry are poorly understood, these options must
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MITIGATION
59
be considered extremely carefully. We need to know more about them ~e-
cause measures of this kind may be crucial if greenhouse warming occurs,
especially if climate sensitivity turns out to be at the high end of the range
considered in this study. Efforts by societies to restrain their greenhouse gas
emissions might be politically infeasible on a global scale, or might fail. In
this eventuality, other options may be incapable of countering the effects, and
geoengineering strategies might be needed. Some of these options are rela-
tively inexpensive to implement, but all have large unknowns concerning possible
environmental side-effects. They should not be implemented without careful
assessment of their direct and indirect consequences.
TABLE 6.2 Comparison of Selected Mitigation Options in the United States
Mitigation Option
Net Implementation
Costa
Potential Emissionb
Reduction
(t CO2 equivalent
per year)
Building energy efficiency Net benefit 900 millions
Vehicle efficiency (no fleet change) Net benefit 300 million
Industrial energy management Net benefit to low cost 500 million
Transportation system management Net benefit to low cost 50 million
Power plant heat rate improvements Net benefit to low cost 50 million
Landfill gas collection Low cost 200 million
Halocarbon-CFC usage reduction Low cost 1400 million
Agriculture Low cost 200 million
Reforestation Low to moderate costs 200 million
Electricity supply Low to moderate costs 1000 millions
aNet benefit = cost less than or equal to zero
Low cost = cost between $1 and $9 per ton of CO2 equivalent
Moderate cost = cost between $10 and $99 per ton of CO2 equivalent
High cost = cost of $100 or more per ton of CO2 equivalent
bThis "maximum feasible" potential emission reduction assumes 100 percent
implementation of each option in reasonable applications and is an optimistic "upper
bound" on emission reductions.
This depends on the actual implementation level and is controversial. This
represents a middle value of possible rates.
Come portions do fall in low cost, but it is not possible to determine the amount
of reductions obtainable at that cost.
eThe potential emission reduction for electricity supply options is actually 1700
Mt CO2 equivalent per year, but 1000 Mt is shown here to remove the double-
counting effect (see p. 61 for an explanation of double-counting).
NOTE: Here and throughout this report, tons are metric.
SOURCE: Chapter 11 of the Mitigation Panel report.
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60
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
TABLE 6.3 Cost-Effectiveness Ordering of Geoengineering Mitigation Options
Net Implementation Potential Emission Mitigation
Mitigation Option Cost (t CO2 equivalent per year)
Low stratospheric soot Low 8 billion to 25 billion
Low stratospheric dust, Low 8 billion to 80 billion
aircraft delivery
Stratospheric dust Low 4 trillion or amount desired
(guns or balloon lift)
Cloud stimulated by Low 4 trillion or amount desired
provision of cloud
condensation nuclei
Stimulation of ocean Low to moderate 7 billion or amount desired
biomass with iron
Stratospheric bubbles
(multiple balloons)
Space mirrors Low to moderate
Atmospheric CFC removal Unknown
Low to moderate
4 trillion or amount desired
4 trillion or amount desired
Unknown
NOTE: The feasibility and possible side-effects of these geoengineering options are
poorly understood. Their possible effects on the climate system and its chemistry
need considerably more study and research. They should not be implemented with-
out careful assessment of their direct and indirect consequences.
Cost-effectiveness estimates are categorized as either savings (for less than 0),
low (0 to $9/t CO2 equivalent), moderate ($10 to $99/t CO2 equivalent), or high
(>$100/t CO2 equivalent). Potential emission savings (which in some cases include
not only the annual emissions, but also changes in atmospheric concentrations already
in the atmosphere stock) for the geoengineering options are also shown. These
options do not reduce the flow of emissions into the atmosphere but rather alter the
amount of warming resulting from those emissions. Mitigation options are placed in
order of cost-effectiveness.
The CO2-equivalent reductions are determined by calculating the equivalent re-
duction in radiative forcing.
Here and throughout this report, tons are metric.
SOURCE: Chapter 11 of the report of the Mitigation Panel.
COMPARING OPTIONS
Table 6.2 shows estimates of net cost and emission reductions for several
options. It must be emphasized that the table presents the panel's estimates
of the technical potential for each option. For example, the calculation of
cost-effectiveness of high-efficiency light bulbs (one of the building effi-
ciency options) does not consider whether the supply of light bulbs could
meet the demand with current production capacities. It does not consider
the trade-off between expenditures on light bulbs and on health care, educa
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MITIGATION
61
lion, or basic shelter for low-income families. Nor does it consider aes-
thetic issues about different sources of illumination.
Care must be taken in developing such a table because there is some
"double-counting" among potential mitigation options. For example,
implementation of both the nuclear and the natural gas energy options assumes
replacement of the same coal-fired power plants. Thus, simply summing up
the emission reductions of all options to give total reduction in emissions
would overstate the actual potential.
The options presented in Table 6.2
have been selected to eliminate double-counting.
Finally, although there is evidence that efficiency programs can pay,
there is no field evidence showing success with programs on the massive
scale suggested here. There may be very good reasons why options exhib-
iting net benefit on the table are not fully implemented today.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the results of different rates of implementation of
those options. The many uncertainties in the calculations of both costs and
emission reductions have been collapsed into two lines. The line labeled
"25% Implementation/High Cost" assumes incomplete implementation of
each option (25 percent implementation of feasible opportunities) and the
high end of the range of cost estimates for that option (high cost). This line
shows a lower bound of what is reasonable to achieve. The line labeled
moo
80
60
-
a)
-
. _
a)
o
-
~n
8 -20
40
20
-40
-60
-80
-100
25% Implementation/High Cost
100% Implementation/Low Cost
100% Annual U.S. CO2
equivalent emissions
0 2 4 6 8
EMISSION REDUCTION (billion tons CO2 equivalent per year)
FIGURE 6.3 Comparison of mitigation options. Total potential reduction of CO2-
equivalent emissions is compared to the cost in dollars per ton of CO2 reduction. Options
are ranked from left to right in CO2 emissions according to cost. Some options show
the possibility of reductions of CO2 emissions at a net savings. See text for expla-
nation.
SOURCE: Chapter 11 of the report of the Mitigation Panel.
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62
00
60
-
c
.>
o
-20
co
o
40
20
o
-40
-60
-80
-1 00
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF GREENHOUSE WARMING
25% Implementation/High Cost
-
_
r
>~ Energy Modeling
~ it.
100% Implementation/Low Cost
100% Annual U.S. CO2
equivalent emissions
o
2
4
6
EMISSION REDUCTION (billion tons CO2 equivalent per year)
8
FIGURE 6.4 Comparison of mitigation options using technological costing and
energy modeling calculations.
SOURCE: Chapter 11 of the report of the Mitigation Panel.
"100% Implementation/Low Cost" assumes complete implementation of each
option (100 percent implementation) combined with the low range of cost
estimates for that option (low cost). This line indicates the upper bound
that could be achieved with all options shown. A complete analysis would
calculate appropriate implementation rates for each option. That is beyond
the scope of this study. It should be realistic to achieve emission reduction
and cost results somewhere between the two lines in Figure 6.3.
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, technological costing and energy
modeling sometimes yield different results. For this reason, both are presented
in Figure 6.4. The "100% Implementation/Low Cost" and "25% Implementation/
High Cost" curves are repeated *om Figure 6.3, and the range typical of
energy modeling is shown. As can be seen from Figure 6.4, the United
States should be able to achieve substantial reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions at low cost, or perhaps even a small net savings.
IMPLEMENTING MITIGATION OPTIONS
An array of policy instruments of two different types are available: regu-
lation and incentives. Regulatory instruments mandate action and include
controls on consumption (bans, quotas, required product attributes), produc
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MITIGATION
63
lion (quotas on products or substances), and factors in design or production
(efficiency, durability, processes). Incentive instruments are designed to
influence decisions by individuals and organizations and include taxes and
subsidies on production factors (carbon tax, fuel tax) and on products and
other outputs (emission taxes, product taxes), financial inducements (tax
credits, subsidies), and transferable emission rights (tradable emission re-
ductions, tradable credits).
Interventions at all levels could effectively reduce greenhouse warming.
For example, individuals could reduce energy consumption, recycle goods,
and reduce consumption of deleterious materials. Local governments could
control emissions from buildings, transport fleets, waste processing plants,
and landfill dumps. State governments could restructure electric utility
pricing structures and stimulate a variety of efficiency incentives. National
governments could pursue action in most of the policy areas of relevance.
International organizations could coordinate programs in various parts of
the world, manage transfers of resources and technologies, and facilitate
exchange of monitoring and other relevant data.
The choice of policy instrument depends on the objective to be served.
Although this analysis of mitigation options does not include all possibilities,
the panel is hopeful that it does identify the most promising options. This
analysis provides the beginnings of a structure and a process for identifying
those strategies that could appropriately mitigate the prospect of greenhouse
warming.
CONCLUSIONS
There is a potential to inexpensively reduce or offset greenhouse gas
emissions in the United States. In particular, the maximum feasible poten-
tial reduction for the options labeled "net benefit" and "low cost" in Table 6.2
totals about 3.6 billion tons (3.6 Gt) of CO2-equivalent emissions per year.
(Here, as elsewhere in the report, tons are metric.) This is a little more than
one-third of the total 1990 greenhouse gas emissions in the United States
and represents an optimistic upper bound on what could be achieved using
these options.
A lower bound can be estimated from Figure 6.4. Arbitrarily using a
cutoff of between $10 and $20 per ton of CO2-equivalent emission reduction
would produce a level of about 1 Gt of CO2-equivalent emissions per year,
or a little more than 10 percent of current greenhouse gas emissions in the
United States.
This analysis suggests that the United States could reduce its greenhouse
gas emissions by between 10 and 40 percent of the 1990 level at very low
cost. Some reductions may even be at a net savings if the proper policies
are implemented.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
mitigation options
