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OCR for page 167
Potential New Poultry
Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of do-
mesticating certain wild birds. Here, briefly, are highlighted other
wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained
production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long
run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those
interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.
Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock
and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed.
Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks,
geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for
farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible at least none have
poisonous flesh-so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the
only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.
At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but
poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches
where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by
heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas,
a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some
could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for
example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page
120).
The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by
people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, micro-
biology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today
we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new
understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds
easier today than ever before.
~ These include junglefowls (see page 86), ducks (98), geese (104 and 107), guinea fowl
(122), and ocellated turkey (164).
167
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168
MICROLIVESTOCK
In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the
following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and
tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and
to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and
poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are
gallinaceous.
Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The
best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there
are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with
short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although
some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also
eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are
extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching.
All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.
Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered
gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the
marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on
game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.
CHACHALACAS
These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are
found throughout Central and South America, and, given research,
could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken,"
they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their
chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and
people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily
hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3
There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere
they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute
the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to
supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken,
it is tastier and darker.
Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest
edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have
been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are
not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted
to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers,
2 During winter months, when natural foods become scarce, small flocks frequently
solicit handouts of everything from potato chips to popcorn from delighted humans.
Information from W. R. Marion.
3 In =5 months of growth they approach the adult size of 500~00 g. Information from
W. R. Marion.
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POTENTIAL NEW POULTRY
169
they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily
fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and
they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.
Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame
when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost
been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even
used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless
birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4
GUANS
Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds
about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps
could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses,
farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.
Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they
also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly
hunted for food and sport their tameness and inability to fly far or
fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests
threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation
projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most
threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching
projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right
incentive for their protection and multiplication.
CURASSOWS
Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are
even larger up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species
are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South
America. Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.
It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or
ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they
look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer
4 L Griscom has related a story of a chachalaca living in Ocos on the Pacific coast of
Guatemala. It was allowed to move freely around the village. Its chosen task was to
keep peace and order among the domestic fowl. Whenever two cockerels began fighting,
it raced up and separated them. The cockerels would run away as soon as the chachalaca
"cop" appeared on the scene.
5 These birds fall into several genera, but the guans proper are Penelope species.
6 Examples are the great curassow (Crax rubra), which is found from Mexico to Ecuador;
the helmeted curassow (Pauxi pauxi) of the mountains of Venezuela and Colombia; and
the razor-billed curassow (Mitu mite) of the Amazon.
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MICROLIVESTOCK
FOREST BIRD RAIYCHII`IG
This report has intentionally focused on intensive fanning
the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity.
However, where this normal type of fanning is of marginal
value, "ranching" free-ranging birds may often be a more
effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and
improves the condition of the range and devises methods to
harvest the birds on a sustainable basis.
"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particu-
larly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize
birds of thejungle. These might help make standing rainforests
profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic
incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest
birds might become part of a whole new "salvation fanning"
that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique
that may contribute to presenting both bird life and its vitally
valuable habitat.
to them as "paves" or "pavanes," as if they were the real thing.
Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple
gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not
good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.
Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is
shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They
are special targets, not only because they are large but also because
their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.
There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed
in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around
their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan
ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the
cattle yards as if they were chickens.7
MEGAPODES
Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most
interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ
nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build
piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their
7 Information from F. Wayne King.
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POTENTIAL NEW POULTRY
171
eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take
advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.
People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia,
Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the
bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider
the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites
are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being
killed for food.8
Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been
established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a
simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes
gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until
they locate sand that is exactly 32.7°C, before laying their huge (more
than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig
up some 20,000 eggs, which are an important source of protein and
cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that
protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.
Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects
such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not
only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other
species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products-
down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent
songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable
basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the
most dedicated conservationists of all.
PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS
Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World.
They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many
eggs-the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch.
Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly
within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.
Species that may make useful poultry include:
· The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix);
· The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and
· The chukar (A. graeca).
A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and
Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries.
On some Pacific islands, starving Japanese garrisons nearly or completely wiped out
the colonies during World War II.
OCR for page 172
72
MICROLIVESTOCK
MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP
Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food
suppliers, it should be realized that small animals even wild
ones~an have other important uses as well. The following
u~teresting example, with possible worldwide indications,
comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *
Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations.
Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls,
particularly barn owls Unto aura), can help control them. An
owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1, 500 or more
rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms through-
out the world, the barn owl has always been a welcome guest.
What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly
effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects
to attract and maintain these feathered friends.
Dam owl. The shape of the face and the position of the eyes allow this
bird to hear, see, and pinpoint even tiny rodents on the darkest nights.
(R. White, lYew Zealand [lerald)
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POTENTIAL NEW POULTRY
Dam owls are found in many parts of the world, but were
formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969,
however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in
Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased
in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula.
Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more
and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.
The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and
are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on
fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of
$1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest
boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and
expensive problem.
It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations
and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn
owls are, after all, primarily adapted to open spaces and not
dense forest.
Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in
other locations and with other crops. Grain crops notably
nce~re particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one
trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The
concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in
the United States. Indeed, owl nest boxes are being erected in
Central Park in the heart of Yew York City.
173
* Based on infonnation provided by Christopher M. Small
It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many
parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for
expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey
rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more
than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers
of poultry farmers.9
A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francoli-
nus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South
Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats,
and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg
spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and
trapped wherever they are found.
Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs
introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus)
into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages.
9 Information from A. Woodard.
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174
MICROLIVESTOCK
However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in
Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet
Union. ~°
Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and moun-
tains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch
consists of ~8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one
program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.
PHEASANTS,2
One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see
page 86~. The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These
are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asians Because
they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species,
notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly
hunted.
People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on
farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information
on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been
applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of
raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously
addressed.
The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Patio cristatus),
is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds
is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock
dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered
sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that
they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.
QUAIL
Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146), but
dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different
habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of
'I In 1932, three cocks and two hens were released in Agri-tschai Valley in the Nucha
area of Kachetis (Caucasus). By 1947 francolins were all over this valley, and had also
settled the Alasan River valley more than 100 km away.
" D. F. Adene and D. Akande, 1978, A diagnosis of coccidiosis in captive bush fowl
(Francolinus bicalcaratus) and identification of the causative coccidia, East African
Wildlife Journal, ~ 6:227-230.
'I The term pheasant is usually reserved for the large, colorful, long-tailed members of
the Phasianidae family, subfamily: Phasianinae.
'3 The exception is the extraordinary and beautiful Congo peacock, whose discovery in
Central Africa as recently as 1936 created an ornithological sensation.
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POTENTIAL NEW POULTRY
175
all this genetic wealth only one species-the Japanese quail is widely
used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly
tame after about the sixth generation.
The management and even perhaps intensive production of these
various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many devel-
oping nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.'4 Some of these
lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have
other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of
them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research.
The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.
Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the
lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are
found in various places, including the following:
· Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern
Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter
it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)
· The Azores (C. c. conturbans)
· The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa)
· Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata)
· East Africa (C. c. erlangeri)
· Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C.
c. africana)
· Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domes-
ticated quail)
· China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated
Japanese quail)
TINAMOUS
Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests
and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble
small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more
than 40 species and all are much sought for food because their meat
is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is
pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major),
has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes."
Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United
States under the name "South American quail."
Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely
distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats:
]4 The domestic bird has all dark meat, but at least some of the wild ones (the northern
bobwhite, for instance) have both white and dark.
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MICROLIVESTOCK
rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000
m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the
ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying
only when forced.
At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period
males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At
the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in
France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons
unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed.
Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they
showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.~5
Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay
clutches of 1~20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made
of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.
SAND GROUSE
Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in
arid regions-desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their
entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense
down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of
midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils
against blowing sand and dust.
These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of
Africa and Asia for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian,
and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes
flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink
from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these
birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not
endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing
is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer.
The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their popu-
lations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be
easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to
foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the
nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if
harvesting schemes are introduced.
TRUMPETERS
Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for
sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these
5 Information from P. Thiessen.
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POTENTIAL NEW POULTRY
177
relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the
trees, as is now done to raise cattle.
These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles. They
are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably
by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very
tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. ~7
Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly
poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because
of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching
extinction in some areas.
No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but
this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly
berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and
centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.
Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land.
Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their
habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened,
the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching"
programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving
populations built up.
i6 They are part of the type-fauna of the Amazon region where they are called jacamins.
|7 It has been said that trumpeters, like cats, are predisposed to domestication. They
hang around human habitations, even when they have a choice.
OCR for page 178
Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized
that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great
potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic
security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia
starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production
to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to
meeting these needs.
P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt
Rabbit Production
Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in
which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in
animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the tech-
niques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve
the family diet of many of the most needy ruralfamilies, while at the
same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced
technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat
markets.
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production
Representative terms from entire chapter:
sand grouse
