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Executive Summary
Marine aquaculture, the farming of marine finfish, shellfish, crustaceans,
and seaweed, as well as the ocean ranching of anadromousi fish, is a rapidly
growing industry in many parts of the world. In the United States, fresh-
water aquaculture (primarily the farming of catfish, trout, crayfish, and
ornamental fish) is an expanding industry; however, marine aquaculture has
yet to achieve economic success beyond a limited basis. Constraints to the
industry have included difficulties and costs of using coastal and ocean
space, public concerns about environmental effects of wastes on water qual-
ity, conflicts with other users of the coastal zone (e.g., boaters and fisher-
men), objections to marine aquaculture installations on aesthetic grounds
from coastal property owners, and broad ecological issues involving con-
cerns about genetic dilution of wild stocks and transfer of diseases by cul-
tured species through escapement of cultured animals. Poor water quality,
high labor and land costs, and limited warm water temperatures also inhibit
the success of marine aquaculture in the United States.
On the other hand, the consumption of seafood in the United States is
increasing at the same time that yields from capture fishing are reaching the
limits of sustainable returns, and the nation relies increasingly on imports to
meet the growing consumer demand for seafood. The opportunity, therefore,
exists for U.S. aquaculture to develop the capability to supply this growing
demand and for marine aquaculture to make a significant contribution.
The National Research Council convened a committee under its Marine
Board to assess the technology and opportunities for marine aquaculture in
the United States. The primary objective of the study was to identify and
appraise opportunities for technology development that can optimize the
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
cost-effectiveness and productivity of marine aquaculture in the United
States, as well as engineering and policy actions that would address associ-
ated environmental concerns.
The committee concluded that a number of benefits will accrue to the
nation from the addition of an economically viable, technologically ad-
vanced, and environmentally sensitive healthy marine aquaculture industry.
These benefits include providing wholesome seafood to replace declining
harvests of wild fish, products for export to improve the nation's balance of
trade, enhancement of commercial and recreational fisheries and fisheries
that are overfished or otherwise threatened, economic opportunities for ru-
ral communities, and new jobs for skilled workers, particularly in coastal
communities where some traditional fisheries are at maximum sustainable
yield or in decline. The advancement of the science and technology base in
marine aquaculture also will provide benefits to other industries, such as
biotechnology and pharmaceuticals.
The prospects for marine aquaculture as an emerging enterprise are un-
certain and depend on whether a number of problems are resolved. How-
ever, given a fair share of support for the development of an advanced
scientific and engineering base, as well as a reasonable and predictable
regulatory framework, many of the problems that presently constrain ma-
rine aquaculture could be resolved.
Although legislation to promote aquaculture was passed in 1980 (Na-
tional Aquaculture Act, P.L. 96-362) and again in 1985 (National Aquacul-
ture Improvement Act, P.L. 99-198), a number of problems have prevented
these expressions of policy intent from effectively transforming marine aqua-
culture into a dynamic industry. First, no funds were ever appropriated to
agencies to implement the provisions of these acts. Second, the needs of
marine aquaculture have tended to be overshadowed by the interests of the
freshwater aquaculture industry, which are more closely linked to those of
the traditional agriculture community through its geographic focus in in-
land farming areas. Moreover, marine aquaculture, because of its location
in the coastal zone, operates under a complex coastal regulatory regime,
and tends to arouse intense scrutiny because of widespread public concern
about activities that take place in or near the ocean.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study investigated the opportunities for improving the out-
look for U.S. marine aquaculture and concluded that the issues that con-
strain its development will need to be specifically addressed through three
primary avenues: (l) advances in the scientific, technical, and engineering
base that underlies this industry, both to achieve more cost-effective opera-
tions and to mitigate environmental problems; (2) changes in federal and
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
state agency roles to provide a regulatory and funding framework that en-
courages the industry's growth while ensuring that environmental concerns
are addressed; and (3) congressional actions to attend to a number of unre-
solved policy issues. Achieving these objectives will depend on active con-
gressional oversight of the executive agencies charged with implementing
the national policies expressed in the National Aquaculture Act and the
National Aquaculture Improvement Act.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Advances in Technology and Engineering-
A Marine Aquaculture Initiative
The opportunity exists for technology and increased knowledge to pro-
vide solutions to many of the environmental, economic, and biological limi-
tations that constrain marine aquaculture's transformation into a significant
U.S. industry. The design of new technologies can play a key role in im-
proving all aspects of culture operations and auxiliary systems that will
contribute to the economic feasibility of marine aquaculture, as well as
alleviate environmental problems. The opportunity, however, can be real-
ized only if federal policy and action strongly support the development of
needed technology.
The committee recommends that Congress make a $12 million national
commitment to a strategic R&D initiative that will support the research
necessary to develop marine aquaculture technology, to address environ-
mental issues and concerns and to provide economical systems. Leadership
in this initiative should be provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) with coordination by the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture
(JSA), and implemented under memoranda of understanding among fed-
eral agencies that sponsor or conduct research related to marine aquacul-
ture. The initiative should address the following research and development
needs:
· the interdisciplinary development of environmentally sensitive, sustain-
able systems that will enable significant commercialization of onshore (on
land) and nearshore marine aquaculture without unduly increasing conflict
over the use of coastal areas;
· development of the biological and engineering knowledge base for tech-
nologies and candidate species needed to make decisions regarding com-
mercialization of offshore marine aquaculture operations that avoid the
environmental impacts of nearshore operations;
· creation of (1) technology centers to be used for these technology de-
velopment programs, and (2) marine aquaculture parks for fostering new
environmentally sensitive commercial development;
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
· design and implementation of improved higher education programs;
· new and improved procedures and systems to collect and exchange data
and technical information; and
· promotion of marine aquaculture as a vital component of fisheries stock
mitigation and enhancement by (1) facilitating aquaculture's role in the
preservation of threatened or endangered species populations and of genetic
diversity, including greater involvement of private sector facilities; (2) de-
veloping production procedures for the broader range of species necessary
for effective mitigation of negative impacts on fish and shellfish stocks;
and (3) developing and implementing improved methods for determining
the effectiveness of using cultured stock for fish and shellfish enhance-
ment activities in support of commercial, recreational, and ecological
purposes.
Federal Agency Actions
The federal agencies with primary jurisdiction over marine aquaculture
activities include the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and two branches of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) the National Marine Fisheries
Service (NMFS) and the National Sea Grant College Program. Although,
the USDA was designated as lead agency in the National Aquaculture Im-
provement Act of 1985, it is unrealistic to expect that the FWS and NOAA
will give up their long-standing interests in this domain; however, more
effective means of coordinating their activities need to be developed. More
active leadership and more effective coordination of federal activities under
congressional oversight are necessary to translate the intent of existing
national legislation regarding aquaculture into positive actions.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
· It is recommended that the lead role of the USDA be strengthened by
establishing a formal entity focused on aquaculture, at an appropriately high
level in the agency, and by acquiring expertise in marine aquaculture throughout
USDA's services. Specific additional funds need to be allocated to target
marine aquaculture activities in existing USDA services.
· It is recommended that the USDA be charged with leadership in the
promotion of commercial aquaculture including the research and support
services (i.e., National Aquaculture Information Center) required, particu-
larly in the areas of production, processing, distribution, and marketing of
marine aquaculture products, especially as food products.
· It is recommended that, under the leadership of the USDA, several
interagency memoranda of understanding (MOUs) be created to clarify the
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
s
missions, roles, and responsibilities of each agency with respect to aquacul-
ture and specifically marine aquaculture.
Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture
It is recommended that in addition to its current role as a forum for
interagency discussion, the JSA be charged with designing a streamlined
planning and permitting process for marine aquaculture activities emphasiz-
ing joint local, state, and federal coordination, and take responsibility for
promoting the inclusion of marine aquaculture in the Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Act.
.
The JSA should also conduct a comprehensive evaluation of impacts of
the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as amended in 1981) on marine aquaculture, and
make recommendations to Congress for appropriate changes to specifically
encourage development of marine aquaculture based on ecologically sound
considerations.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
It is recommended that the FWS continue to exercise leadership in the
area of fisheries enhancement of anadromous species. Such leadership
should include:
· promoting the use of private aquaculture for enhancement of stocks of
various anadromous species that are heavily fished or otherwise threatened
or endangered;
· supporting the development of technology for rearing and releasing
anadromous stocks where needed; and
· administering the introduction and transfer of nonindigenous anadro-
mous species.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationl
National Marine Fisheries Service
It is recommended that NOAA/NMFS be charged with leadership in the
management and assessment of stock-enhanced marine fisheries. Such leader-
ship should include:
· evaluating the effectiveness of existing and future stock enhancement
programs;
· supporting the development of technology for (1) producing juvenile
stocks needed for nonanadromous marine fisheries enhancement and related
aquaculture, and (2) releasing marine stocks, where needed;
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.
assessing the impact (or potential impact) of various nearshore and
offshore marine aquaculture practices on the marine environment and fish-
eries; and
· administering the introduction and transfer of nonindigenous marine
species.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationl
National Sea Grant College Program
It is recommended that NOAA/Sea Grant be charged with leadership in
support of research and extension programs on marine aquaculture-related
topics focused on preservation of the marine environment, understanding
the life history of candidate species, and multiple use of marine resources,
including associated social, economic, and policy issues. Candidate re-
search topics include:
· environmentally safe technology, methods, and systems for culturing
marine species in the marine environment;
· marine aquaculture technology that is synergistic with other uses of the
sea (i.e., multiple use technologies);
· life history and developmental biology of candidate species;
· the socioeconomic dynamics of the marine aquaculture industry (e.g.,
effects on local employment patterns);
· methods for addressing and resolving conflicts between marine aqua-
culture and other competing users of the marine environment;
· comparative studies of state practices regarding the regulation and
promotion of marine aquaculture; and
· alternative institutional and policy structures for managing marine aqua-
culture in other countries.
Congressional Action
The development of marine aquaculture is beset with complexity that
stems from unique factors that distinguish it from other kinds of agricultural
activity. These are:
· the interaction of marine aquaculture with other marine and coastal
activities and interests- interactions often characterized by conflict;
· the fact that although marine aquaculture is ocean based, it depends on
the use of land and freshwater resources as well; and
· the numerous environmental and regulatory considerations involved in
the development and use of coastal zone land and water.
This complexity entails the involvement of a number of federal, state,
and local agencies that are responsible for all aspects of the advocacy,
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
7
promotion, conduct, and regulation of marine aquaculture, leading to an
array of planning acts, policies, and regulations. For marine aquaculture to
realize its potential, it needs to be addressed explicitly within a coordinated
and coherent policy framework in federal, regional, and state ocean and
coastal zone planning activities.
Although most of the recommendations outlined above can be imple-
mented by the designated agencies through MOUs and by the JSA under
existing legislation, three unresolved policy issues need to be addressed by
Congress.
Completion of the Federal Policy Framework for Marine Aquaculture
Coastal Zone Marine aquaculture must be explicitly included in coastal
zone plans that ensure its proper consideration and evaluation in develop-
ment and environmental decisions. It is recommended that Congress desig-
nate marine aquaculture as a recognized use of the coastal zone in the
Coastal Zone Management Act (P.L. 92-583, as amended in 1990, P.L. 101-
508~. Such designation will stimulate states to include marine aquaculture
in state coastal management plans for achieving a balanced approach to
land use, resource development, and environmental regulation.
Federal Waters Currently, no formal framework exists to govern the
-
leasing and development of private commercial aquaculture activities in
public waters. A predictable and orderly process for ensuring a fair return
to the operator and to the public for the use of public resources is necessary
to the development of marine aquaculture. It is recommended that Congress
create a legal framework to foster appropriate development, to anticipate
potential conflicts over proposed uses, to assess potential environmental
impacts of marine aquaculture, to develop appropriate mitigation measures
for unavoidable impacts, and to assign fair public and private rents and
returns on such operations.
Revision of Laws That Impede the Development of Marine Aquaculture
The Lacey Act
Environmental preservation and the protection of indig-
enous species are important concerns; however, the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79,
as amended 1981, P.L. 97-79) as presently constituted, creates a barrier to
the development of marine aquaculture. Control points for regulation of
the. mov~.ment of living fish between states need to be based on scientific
and ecological information rather than solely on state borders. It is recom-
mended that the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture conduct a comprehen-
sive review of the Lacey Act to recommend to Congress revisions that
could encourage the development of marine aquaculture within an environ-
mentally sound regulatory framework.
,, . A . A . ~
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Creation of a Congressional Committee or Subcommittee on Aquaculture
As human demand for seafood exceeds sustainable yield from traditional
fisheries, dependence on capture fisheries is likely to shift to dependence on
aquaculture. No formal mechanism currently exists for congressional
policymakers to anticipate this transition and make appropriate policy deci-
sions; nor is there a mechanism for congressional oversight of the federal
agency and JSA actions mandated by the National Aquaculture Act and its
amendments. It is recommended that Congress consider creating an over-
sight committee or subcommittee on aquaculture to provide a formal link-
age between the House Agriculture Committee and the House Merchant
Marine and Fisheries Committee to ensure the implementation of existing
and future policies enacted to promote aquaculture.
CONCLUSION
A number of benefits will accrue to the nation from the addition of an
economically vital, technologically advanced, and environmentally sensi-
tive marine aquaculture industry. The prospects of this emerging enterprise
are for healthy and vigorous growth, given a fair share of support for the
development of an advanced scientific and engineering base, along with a
reasonable and predictable regulatory framework. On this basis, the envi-
ronmental problems that presently constrain marine aquaculture are likely
to be resolved so that it can contribute to the continued vitality of the
nation's living marine resources.
NOTE
1. Fish that ascend rivers from the sea at certain seasons for breeding (e.g., salmon
and shad).
Representative terms from entire chapter:
coastal zone
