Marine Aquaculture: Opportunities for Growth (1992)

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Appendix C Federal Marine Aquaculture Policy Numerous federal and state agencies regulate and promote aquaculture. However, four agencies of the federal government the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Sea Grant College Program in the Department of Commerce, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) in the Department of the Interior, and the Na- tional Science Foundation (NSF) play major roles in various aspects of marine aquaculture development. Estimating total federal expenditures by these four agencies for marine aquaculture is problematic because marine aquaculture expenditures can be difficult to identify. For example, aquacul- ture expenditures do not always differentiate between freshwater and ma- rine programs, as in the case of funding for the USDA National Aquaculture Information Center. Another example is that the FWS has received no appropriations under the National Aquaculture Act of 1980, or under sub- sequent amendments, but operates hatcheries and conducts marine aqua- culture research under other authority. For these reasons, the figures quoted below should be viewed as a best estimate of total federal marine aqua- culture expenditures. Current marine aquaculture activities of these four agencies are detailed below. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE The USDA carries out much of its aquaculture-related programs under the Assistant Secretary for Science and Education through the Cooperative State Research Service, the Agricultural Research Service, the Extension Service, and the National Agricultural Library. 241

240 APPENDIX B Experimental culture of the Atlantic shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum), an endangered species, has developed to the point that fin- gerlings are produced regularly and are stocked in natural waters. Overall, sturgeon culture is expected to continue to expand, but with most grow-out operations located in freshwater, rather than saltwater, environments. REFERENCES Catfish News. 1989. Louisiana Florida slug it out on crawfish. (May/June):3. Fish Farming International 1990. Alligator earnings boost U.S. farms. 17~5~: 21. Huner, J.V. 1990a. Crawfish and catfish in Louisiana. Fish Farm. Int. 17~1~:28, 30. Huner, J.V. l990b. Aquaculture worth over $200 million to Louisiana. Fish Farm. Int. 17~4~:20. Huner, J.V. l990c. New horizons for the crawfish industry. Aquaculture Magazine 16~5~:65-70. Knox, R.H., and T.F. Drda. 1982-1983. Florida Aquaculture Survey, 1982-1983. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission on Aquaculture Project. 54 pp. Martin,M. 1983. Goldfishfarming. AquacultureMagazine9~31:38-40;9(4~:38- 40; 9(51: 30-34. Rhodes, R.J. 1987. Status of world aquaculture. Aquaculture Magazine 17th Ann. Buyers Guide, p. 8. Van 01st, J.C., and J.M. Carlberg. 1990. Commercial culture of hybrid striped bass. Aquaculture Magazine 16~1~:49-S9.

FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 239 tially resolved by hybridization of tilapia species to produce sterile or monosex (all-male) offspring. Selective breeding of the hybrids has also resulted in red varieties that are more attractive and marketable than the dark-colored native species. It is now possible to produce red hybrid tilapia of 0.5 to 1.5 kg in extremely dense, highly intensive tank culture. However, to find market acceptance of the species in this country has proved difficult at a price that is economically viable, and unlike its success elsewhere in the world, tilapia farming in the United States has yet to become an estab- lished industry. Macrobrachium The large freshwater shrimp or prawn, Macrobrachium rosenberghii, is grown in small commercial operations in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. With the exception of certain behavioral characteristics, such as dominance and territorialism in large males (which can be at least partially alleviated by frequent selective harvesting), there are no particular problems or constraints to its cultivation. However, the young must be reared in salt water prior to transfer to fresh water for adult grow-out, a factor that limits the places where it can be reared. In addition, the animal is truly tropical in its habitat requirement, so that year-round growth in most of the United States is limited. A number of Macrobrachium farms were started up in Hawaii over the past decade, but most have since gone out of business or have converted to marine (penaeid) shrimp. Marketing problems have hindered commercial success with the species. Sturgeon The white sturgeon iAcipenser transmontanus) is another anadromous fish that grows equally well in salt water or hard fresh water. It has been cultured primarily in California, where the industry has expanded rapidly over the past five years, and the product has been marketed routinely at attractive prices. To date, the culture system of choice is intensive tank systems using large cylindrical fiberglass tanks supplied with flow-through or recirculated fresh water. Pond culture systems have not been particularly satisfactory for sturgeon. Major problems encountered by the industry include disease and the reli- ance on wild female brood stock. Diseases have been a recurring problem, and identification of control measures is a priority research area, along with development of domesticated brood stock. Mature males can now be pro- duced routinely in captivity, and some cultured females (approximately six to seven years old) have recently exhibited ovarian development. Maturation of females in captivity could lead to an aquaculture-based caviar industry.

23g Hybrid Striped Bass APPENDIX B Hybrids of the anadromous striped bass (Morone saxatilis) female and the freshwater white bass (M. chrysops' male have been hatchery reared since the 1960s for sport fishing and forage fish control in large southern U.S. lakes and reservoirs. For the past decade, research has been carried out on the feasibility of growing the hybrid as an aquaculture food crop. These research and development efforts have included semi-intensive pond culture in North and South Carolina and elsewhere along the eastern seaboard, and highly intensive tank culture in the California desert using . .. a. . . . ~ geothermal well water. the hybrid can be grown in either salt or highly alkaline fresh water, the latter having most frequently been used in the initial efforts. Several of these efforts have now achieved commercial sta- tus, including a new intensive tank culture project in Mississippi. However, the industry is still quite small. , ~ ~ . , In 1987, approximately 450 tons were marketed, of which 75 percent were produced by one of the intensive tank farms in California. The industry is still dependent on the female striped bass hybrid and the male freshwater white bass hybrid, but it has not been able routinely to produce sexually mature hybrids that spawn in captivity, relying instead on hormonally induced spawning of ripe-running wild females. The latter are difficult to acquire, both legally and logistically, and the supply of young is restricted to one brief period of the year. The intensive culture method, involving heavy application of high-pro- tein feed, pumping large volumes of water, the use of liquid oxygen, and a high capital investment for tanks and equipment, imposes a break-even cost of $4 to $5/kg for the product to the grower. If wild stocks of striped bass return to the East Coast in abundance, as appears now to be the case, the cost of rearing the hybrid striped bass in captivity must be lowered significantly, perhaps by the use of less intensive pond culture technology, for the industry to prove viable (Van 01st and Carlberg, 1990~. T., . apla Several species of the genus Tilapia (oreochromis), native to the lakes of Africa, have now spread to tropical and semitropical habitats throughout the world, including the southern United States. Herbivorous or omnivorous in its feeding habits, Tilapia can be grown inexpensively in extremely dense culture and with high yields. Not surprisingly, it has become a major target for aquaculture throughout the tropical world. A major constraint to tilapia culture is its early sexual maturation and extreme fecundity, resulting in rapid overpopulation and stunting in ponds and impoundments where it is stocked. The problem has recently been par-

FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 237 lively warm well water and/or covering of the surface. The fish are fed prepared rations that differ considerably in formulation and amount applied. Antibiotics, drugs, and chemicals are used as needed for disease, pest, and weed control, but practices tend to be empirical and are far from standard- ized in the industry. A study by the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission estimated that the state's tropical fish industry consisted of some 215 full-time fish farmers utilizing an area of 433 hectares with an annual value to the grow- ers of $26 million in sales (Knox and Drda, 1982-1983~. Initially, the bait and goldfish industries were similarly fragmented into small family units but, over the past 25 years, have gradually become consolidated into fewer larger farms. About 10 growers dominated the fancy goldfish industry in the 1960s, and one large company has since captured about 80 percent of the business. The larger feeder goldfish and bait minnow industry is repre- sented by some 50 growers, of which one-half dozen dominate. Documentation of the size and monetary value of these nonfood fish culture industries in the United States is not well documented. One esti- mate put "baitfish" production at 12,200 metric tons worth $56 million in 1987, but it is not clear what the category included. An experienced academ- ic and commercial goldfish culturist estimated that industry to be worth $10 million to $20 million to the farmer (Martin, 1983~. It would thus appear that the entire category of nonfood fish culture has an annual value to the grower of $50 million to $100 million, making it one of the economi- cally more important forms of U.S. aquaculture. Alligators Alligators are valuable for their hides, worth up to $50 per linear foot on the international market, and for their meat ($15/kg on the specialty food market). A 4- to 5-foot animal can be grown from an egg in about 14 months and brings about $20 to $30 per foot (in late 1990~; wild animals are more valuable and are priced at $40 to $50 per foot.. There are presently some 180 alligator farms, of which 90 are in Louisi- ana and 40 are in Florida. Eggs are captured from wild nesting animals under a carefully controlled licensing arrangement, which includes the pro- viso that 17 percent of the reared stock be returned to the wild when they reach 4 feet in length. The animals are grown in heated incubators and fed rations prepared on-site from nutria, large swamp-dwelling rodents. Com- mercially produced pelleted feeds are also available in several sizes. A 5- foot alligator costs $50 to $75 to raise. Currently, about 100,000 cultured alligators are marketed per year, making this fledgling industry worth some $15 million to $20 million (Fish Farming International, 1990~.

236 APPENDIX B pigmented a vivid orange color, and is marketed fresh, presumably to com- pete with marine cage-grown salmon and trout. Bait and Ornamental Fish Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were introduced to the United States from Japan in the late nineteenth century and have been reared in this country for nearly 100 years in a "goldfish belt" extending from Maryland to Arkansas. Initially bred exclusively for the ornamental or aquarium trade, the smaller and less attractive specimens began to be sold for bait and as feed for carnivorous ornamental fish by the middle of this century. Today more "feeder" than ornamental goldfish are reared and sold, but the value of the latter is still greater (Martin, 1983~. At about the same time that goldfish began to be used for bait, other more traditional bait, particularly the golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucasJ and the fathead minnow (Pimephales notatusJ, which belong to the same "minnow" family as goldfish, began to be reared in the central part of the country, particularly Arkansas. All of the above fish are reared in much the same way in shallow, earthen ponds ranging in size from 0.1 to 25 hectares through which spring water is circulated slowly. The fish spawn naturally along the pond banks in the spring, either on grass or on artificial spawning mats made of sphag- num moss or other fibrous material. In the latter case, the mats are usually transferred to fishless breeder ponds after the adhesive eggs are laid, to prevent cannibalism. Grow-out takes 6 to 18 months, depending on the size of fish desired (Martin, 1983~. The tropical ornamental fish industry is centered in Florida, which pro- vides more than 90 percent of the aquarium fish, exclusive of goldfish, sold in the United States. The industry consists of two kinds of operations: (1) importation of exotic species from tropical Southeast Asia, Africa, or Latin America for resale after holding and growing-out for various periods of time; and (2) maturation, breeding, and rearing to marketable size of a number of exotic species. Only about one-third of the sales by Florida growers currently belong to the second category of fish grown throughout their life cycle on the farms, and these represent 10 percent or less of the total number of species handled. There are about 12 species groups in that category, of which 5 (the live-bearing species) make up 70 percent of all sales. However, an increasing number of the more difficult to rear egg- bearing exotics have been brought under reproductive control by some pro- gressive farmers in the past decade. The fish are grown, for the most part, in small earthen ponds averaging about 200 m2 in area, usually below the water table, so that they must be pumped dry for cleaning and water exchange. In hot weather, they may require aeration and, in cold weather, continuous pumping of deep, rela-

FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 235 in federal and nonprofit private hatcheries in the Pacific Northwest for subsequent release to the sea. This program is carried out as mitigation for the loss of natural spawning areas in rivers through dam construction or, more recently, simply as enhancement of natural reproduction. Return of stocked small as mature salmon generally averages 2-5 percent, a figure that has increased with the production of larger, healthier smelt stock and now accounts for a significant fraction (about 30 percent or more) of U.S. salmon landings. Such hatchery operations, particularly at the federal level, have provided the principal basis for development of the technology of salmonid culture. This has now become routine, and no striking new advances in the field have been made recently, but there has been steady improvement of diet and reproductive control, as well as some significant stock improvement through selective breeding. Trout and salmon normally inhabit cool, clean water, and their cultiva- tion, therefore, depends on the rapid exchange of flowing temperate water (10-20°C) of high quality. Eggs and sperm usually are stripped artificially, and eggs are incubated and fry reared to fingerlings in flowing water sys- tems within hatcheries. Fingerlings are then traditionally reared outdoors to the desired size in concrete raceways, although other grow-out systems have been used successfully. The fish accept artificial formulated feed as soon as the yolk sac is absorbed, and appropriate formulations have been developed for each stage of their growth and development. Although several species of trout are hatchery reared for sport fishing, the cultivation of trout for food has been restricted largely to the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri now called Ancorynchus mykiss), native to the U.S. Pacific Coast. Farming of the species for food was first begun in the l950s in the state of Idaho, primarily owing to the advantage of a bountiful supply of cold, clean running spring water issuing from the Rocky Mountains in the Snake River valley. Although trout are now grown for food in virtually every state with a suitable climate for their cultivation, 76 percent of the U.S. production of some 25,000 metric tons still comes from Idaho. The industry has grown slowly over the past decade, increasing by ap- proximately 5 percent per year, on average. The principal constraint to more rapid growth is the relatively low price of the product, currently about $2.40/kg, which is set by competition from Japan and Europe but is mar- ginal for a species that requires high-quality feed and relatively intensive culture technology. Traditionally, the product has been a portion-size (340 grams, or 3/4 pound, 12 inches) fish, fresh or frozen, gutted, and head-on. A trout of that size used to be grown in Idaho in about 18 months but now takes just over a year from the egg. Increasingly, the fish are now marketed fresh, and more than 50 percent are boned and sold as fillets. Further, an increasing fraction is being grown to a larger size of 1 kg or more, is

234 APPENDIX B highest production from March to May). Traps are traditionally baited with fish wastes. Artificial baits are now formulated by some of the large feed manufacturers, but their use is economically marginal. Crayfish and rice are often grown in rotation in the same pond, but care must be taken to guard against the use of pesticides, to which the crustacea are highly sensi- tive. During the 1970s, about 1,000 metric tons of crayfish were reared on 7,000 hectares of ponds in Louisiana. Since then, the industry has ex- panded rapidly in response to increased local and international demand, the latter exacerbated by the decimation of European crayfish populations by disease. By the mid-1980s, farms had spread into neighboring Texas, Mis- sissippi, and Florida, and yields approached 50,000 metric tons from 40,000 hectares of ponds. In danger of overproduction, the industry increased marketing efforts, with the result that the more popular local "Cajun" and "Creole," as well as the more traditional French, recipes are now offered by specialty restaurants throughout the United States. However, continued expansion of the indus- try (53,000 hectares of ponds in Louisiana alone in 1988-1989) eventually led to market saturation and a drop in price to $0.77/kg by 1990, which has led to a decrease in intensification of the farming (i.e., trapping) effort and a corresponding decrease in yield per unit area, with an overall current yield of approximately 30,000 metric tons by the industry and a value to the grower of $24.5 million (Hurter, 1990a, b). A new product within the past few years is newly molted soft-shelled crayfish, comparable to soft-shelled crabs both in method of production and in utilization (Hurter, l990c). Because of present marketing problems with traditional crayfish crops, there was a rush by growers to the production of soft-shelled crayfish in 1988-1989, which unfortunately quickly saturated the new undeveloped market for that product. The future of the U.S. cray- fish culture industry is therefore currently in a state of some uncertainty (Catfish News, 19891. TroutlSalmon Trout culture is undoubtedly the oldest form of freshwater aquaculture in the United States, having been introduced from Europe more than 100 years ago to provide or enhance sport fishing in both private and public waters. Today, more than 200 million trout of several species are reared in some 350 state and federal hatcheries for distribution to public waters for sport fishing. An additional 1 billion (approximately) Pacific salmon are reared to the size of smolt (the physiological condition at which they may be introduced to salt water, a stage that varies in size and age with the species of salmon)

FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 233 Availability of fingerlings early in the year remains a major constraint to the industry. Only recently have efforts been made in the area of demand spawning through manipulation of photoperiod, temperature, and diet. Some stock improvement through selective breeding also has been initiated, to- gether with modern genetic manipulation, such as gynogenesis, to produce faster-growing all male populations. A chronic problem in catfish culture is off-flavor, which may result in the rejection of entire crops. The industry currently tests fish before harvesting and processing to ensure that off-flavor fish are eliminated before marketing. With the in- crease in production, the price of catfish dropped in 1989 from $1.72 to a low of $1.39 per kilogram (kg) of whole fish at pond side, suggesting that the market might be saturated. However, creation of a marketing association in October 1989 resulted in a price rise back to $1.72 by March 1990 while production continued to increase. At that price, the current annual crop has a value to the grower of some $265 million (Hurter, 1990a, 1990b). Crayfish The inhabitants of Louisiana, many of whom are of French background, have long harvested and enthusiastically consumed native populations of crayfish (locally "crawfish"), a food virtually ignored by consumers in much of the United States but highly popular in parts of Europe. Louisianians have also, for many years, practiced a simple form of aquaculture for the most popular and abundant species, the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkiiJ and, to a lesser extent, the white river crayfish (P. blandingiJ. Crayfish culture is an extremely nonintensive, low-cost form of aquatic farming that is barely distinguishable from capture fishing. Shallow (<1.0 meter [m] wetland ponds (often rice paddies) are stocked (usually just once) with adult animals at 50 to 100 kg per hectare. They often are planted with starter populations of several species of edible plants (if rice is not present in abundance), such as alligator grass (Alternanthera phylloxeroides) and water primrose (Jussiaea spp.J. However, the crayfish eat almost any soft aquatic or terrestrial plant and often will thrive on natural vegetation. After mating occurs in late spring, the ponds are slowly drained. The animals then dig and move into burrows in the soft mud bottoms, where they remain until egg laying occurs in early fall. At that time, the ponds are refilled, the young hatch from the eggs, and growth proceeds until the next mating season. Once ponds are initially stocked with crayfish and, if neces- sary, planted with vegetation, the aquaculturist's role is merely to manipu- late the water level of the pond. Harvesting is by trapping, which is rather primitive and inefficient, and represents the most costly aspect of the culture operation, but which may be done throughout the flooded period (i.e., from November to May, with

Appendix B Freshwater Aquaculture in the United States OVERVIEW OF PRODUCTION Of the roughly 0.3 million metric tons (mmt) of aquatic life grown for food in the United States, three-quarters or more are freshwater organisms. Most of the freshwater production consists of catfish, crayfish, and rainbow trout, in that order of importance. Large numbers of freshwater organisms are grown for purposes other than their immediate use for food. These include ornamental fish, baitfish, trout and other species stocked for recre- ational fishing, and salmon small released at sea for ocean ranching opera- tions. In these latter applications, the fish are not normally sold, utilized, or accounted for by weight, so that it is difficult to assess their importance in U.S. aquaculture relative to the importance of the food species. Catfish Catfish farming is, far and away, the major aquaculture success story in the United States. Beginning no earlier than the mid-1960s, when a few thousand kilograms of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) were grown in Arkansas, the annual crop had increased to more than 1,000 metric tons raised in 18 different states by 1969. By 1980, the center for the industry had shifted to the lower Mississippi delta, and national production had in- creased to more than 20,000 metric tons. Since then, catfish farming has grown by some 30 percent per year to a crop of 155,000 metric tons sold to processors in 1989, 90 percent of which is grown in the state of Mississippi (Rhodes, 1987~. 232

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 231 Needham, T. 1990. Canadian aquaculture let's farm the oceans. World Aquacul- ture 21~2~:76-80. Price Waterhouse Management Consultants. 1990. Long term production outlook for the Canadian aquaculture industry (1990 edition) an overview. Report pre- pared for Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa, Ontario. Rosenberry, R. 1990. Shrimp farming in the Western Hemisphere. Presented at Aquatech 90, Malaysia, June. Rosenberry, R. 1991a. World shrimp farming. Aquaculture Magazine (September/ October):60-64. Rosenberry, R. l991b. World shrimp farming. 1991. Aquaculture Digest, San Diego, Ca. Tilseth, S. 1990. New marine fish species for cold-water farming. Aquaculture 85:235-245. Tseng, C.K. 1981. Commercial Cultivation. Pp. 680-725 in Biology of Seaweeds, C. Lobban and M. Wyne, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press.

230 Implications for the United States APPENDIX A Aquaculture development in the United Kingdom offers interesting in- sights, including both similarities and differences with the U.S. aquaculture experience. Despite the lack of formal statutory guidance in the United Kingdom for the development of aquaculture, this sector has developed into a significant industry. Domestic factors in the United Kingdom responsible for this growth include financial support, favorable growing conditions (i.e., water quality, temperature), and minimum resistance from other coastal us- ers. The inherent international factor (i.e., international capital and eco- nomic competition) of the European environment has also had an important role in furthering the U.K. aquaculture industry. Continued expansion of the industry, however, faces challenges in siting, planning, and public ac- ceptance. Yet, despite these difficulties, aquaculture in the United King- dom has gained a more recognized status as a legitimate coastal area enter- prise than it currently enjoys in the United States. REFERENCES Aiken, D. 1990. Commercial aquaculture in Canada. World Aquaculture 21(21:66-75. Bettencourt, S.U., and J.L. Anderson. 1990. Pen-Reared Salmonid Industry in the Northeastern United States. Department of Marine Resource Economics, Univer- sity of Rhode Island, Kingston, R.I. 147 pp. Cook, R.H. 1990. Salmon farming in the Bay of Fundy The challenge of the future. World Aquaculture 21(2~:46. Egan, D., and A. Kenney. 1990. Salmon farming in British Columbia. World Aquaculture 21~21:6-11. Folsom, W.B., and B.D. McFetters. 1990 World salmon aquaculture. Proceedings of a Marine Technology Society Conference "Science and Technology for a New Oceans Decade" 623-628. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 1989. Fisheries Circular No. 815 Rev. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAG). 1990. A new definition of aquaculture. Fisheries 15~41:54. Gousset, G. 1990. European eel (Anguilla L.) farming technologies in Europe and in Japan: Application of a comparative analysis. Aquaculture 87:209-235. Isaacs, F. 1990. Irish moss aquaculture moves from lab to marketplace. World Aquaculture 21 (21:95-97. Juario, J.V., and L.V. Benitez, eds. 1988. Perspectives in Aquaculture Develop- ment in Southeast Asia and Japan. Aquaculture Department SEAFDEC, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. Mito, I., and J. Fukuhura. 1988. Aquaculture development in Japan. Pp. 39-72 in Perspectives in Aquaculture Development in Southeast Asia and Japan, J.V. Juario and L.V. Benitez, eds. Aquaculture Department SEAFDEC, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. Muise, B. 1990. Mussel culture in Eastern Canada. World Aquaculture 21~21:12-23.

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 229 Act and the Orkney Council Act, both of 1974, the Shetland and Orkney Islands councils have jurisdiction over the waters surrounding the islands and are responsible for issuing work licenses, which are necessary for es- tablishing fish farms. Financial Assistance Financial assistance for fish farming in the United Kingdom is available from several sources. The first is the regional selective assistance program operated by the Industry Department under the Industrial Development Act of 1982. A second source is government agencies such as the Highlands and Islands Development Board, the Scottish Development Agency, the Welsh Development Agency, and the Council for Small Industries in Rural Areas. The EC also provides aid for the establishment, extension, and modernization of fish farms. Since 1978 the EC has assisted 125 projects in the United King- dom at a total cost of 10 million pounds (mostly for salmon farms). To qualify for EC aid a project must also be in receipt of national assistance of at least 10 percent of the eligible costs. The EC has also given assistance to capi- tal investments concerned with the processing and marketing of farmed fish, including processing, packaging, freezing, chilling, and storage facilities. In addition, national assistance has been made available directly for promotional and marketing initiatives by contributions to such bodies as the Scottish Salmon Farmers' Marketing Board and the British Trout Association and, indirectly, through Food From Britain and the Sea Fish Industry Authority. Outlook The outlook for aquaculture in the United Kingdom is dependent on the availability of suitable sites and growing conditions, the costs of fish meal, competition from other countries, disease, environmental considerations, and judgments as to the benefits of aquaculture compared to tourism and other coastal uses. Future growth also varies by species. Farmed salmon production could increase by more than 50,000 tons by the mid-1990s, with most of this expansion coming from existing farms or those already planned. With increasing pressure on coastal siting, offshore salmon farm- ing is likely to develop. Trout production is also expected to increase, perhaps reaching 25,000 tons by the mid-199Os, but further growth is likely to be limited by the availability of adequate freshwater supplies. Mollusk production is expected to increase significantly. There are about 10,000 hectares of productive ground in estuaries and inlets. These lands could produce 15 tons of oysters, 30-50 tons of mussels, or 10-25 tons of clams a year.

228 APPENDIX A other territorial fisheries departments for Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Aquaculture legislative controls are directed toward the establish- ment and operation of fish and shellfish farms, including disease and movement controls, planning, water abstraction and discharge, and naviga- tion. The primary responsibility of the fisheries departments is stipulated un- der the Diseases of Fish Acts (1937 and 1983) and the Sea Fisheries (Shell- fish) Act (19671. These laws are directed at preventing the introduction and spread of pests and diseased fish. All fish and shellfish operations in the United Kingdom are required to register with the appropriate fisheries de- partment and to maintain records of fish movements. The Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act of 1967 also grants the exclusive right to cultivate oysters, mussels, cockles, clams, scallops, and queen conch in designated waters. Activities associated with the release of nonnative fish and shellfish into the wild, the use of pesticides, and the licensing of medicines are regulated under the Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981, the Control of Pesticides Regulations of 1968, and the Medicines Act of 1968, respectively. Planning Aquaculture planning control rests with both local planning authorities and central government. Fish farms have to comply with the provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act, 1971, and the Town and Country Planning Act (Scotland), 1972. Also in accordance with EC Directive 85/ 337/EEC, environmental assessments must be undertaken for salmon rear- ing developments that are judged likely to have significant environmental effects. Effluent discharges from fish farms are controlled under the Water Act of 1989. Fish farmers are required to obtain consent to discharge their wastewater and to observe the standards set by the appropriate national river authority (river purification authorities in Scotland). The act also ex- tends the need to obtain a water abstraction license for certain farms in England and Wales. In Scotland, water abstraction for fish farming is based principally on a common law right of riparian owners to use water in rivers and streams. Marine-based fish farms are almost without formal planning control pro- cedures, but their operations normally require the consent of, and a lease from, the Crown Estate Commissioners (CEC). The role of the CEC in planning and approving marine-based aquaculture projects is under review by the Agriculture Committee of the House of Commons. Marine fish farms must obtain navigation consents from the Department of Transport to ensure that cages and other anchored equipment do not interfere with navigation of vessels. Under the Shetland County Council

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 227 salmon escapes from fish farms. In 1989, 20 percent of the fish caught by fishers had escaped from fish farms. This situation has led to increasing concern about fish from farms breeding with and contaminating wild stocks. The Salmon Act of 1985 makes it illegal to move wild stocks from river to river. Implications for the United States The Norwegian experience in aquaculture illustrates what can be ex- pected with the combined support of formal statutory guidance, intense research, and financial assistance. Of course, the strict regulatory model adopted by Norway may not be appropriate for the United States, but the Norwegian investment in research is consistent with the U.S. approach to agricultural research. In comparing the fish farming experiences of Norway and Canada, government financial assistance seems to be the common fac- tor in assessing the success of aquaculture in these countries. The Norwe- gian experience also indicates that aquaculture growth needs to be balanced with market demand and that, like other commodities (at least in the short run), aquaculture growth has its limits. The United Kingdom Status Aquaculture grew rapidly in the United Kingdom during the 1980s, with total production increasing from 7,000 tons in 1980 to 45,000 tons in 1989. Most of this output has come from salmon and trout production, which amounted to 18,000 and 16,000 tons, respectively, in 1988. (Scotland is the second largest salmon producer in the world after Norway.) The combined wholesale value of the 1988 aquaculture output was 100 million pounds, compared with the total value of all fish and shellfish landings by U.K. vessels of 400 million pounds. The industry provides employment for about 5,000 people and at least a similar number in downstream industries. Fish farming has been especially important in the highlands and western islands of Scotland because the industry provides employment in many isolated and economically depressed areas. Currently, 244 salmon farming businesses are registered in Scotland operating at 459 sites. There are also about 400 sites for raising trout. Other species farmed in the United Kingdom include oysters, clams, and scallops. Legislation Responsibility for aquaculture development in the United Kingdom rests primarily with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and the

226 Status APPENDIX A Norway Of the many nations engaged in cold water fish farming, Norway is recognized as a leader in aquaculture development and production. Norwe- gian production of farmed salmon has risen from 4,000 tons in 1979 to 150,000 tons in 1990 (the 1990 figure represents a 25 percent increase compared to 1989~. More than 90 percent of this production is exported. In fact, aquaculture is Norway's fastest growing industry, with an average annual growth rate of 47 percent from 1980 to 1986. This remarkable growth is attributable to good water quality; low but ideal sea temperature owing to the Gulf Stream; sheltered, ice-free sites behind a myriad of coastal islands; innovative technology; and the development of new markets. Cur- rently, about 750 fish farms in Norway provide direct employment to 6,OOO people, with another 9,000 jobs provided indirectly through educational services, research, and public administration. Although salmon aquaculture dominates Norwegian fish farming production, other cultivated species in- clude trout, arctic char, oysters, and mussels. Currently, research is also directed at attempts to farm halibut, Atlantic cod, and ocean wolffish (Tilseth, 1990~. Legislation Fish farming in Norway is regulated under the Fish Farming Act of 1985. The objective of the act is to ensure a balanced development of the industry and to make it profitable and viable. The act applies to both freshwater and saltwater aquaculture, and includes the handling and feeding of fish and shellfish, as well as the geographic allocation of new farms. Under the act, anyone wishing to enter the industry must first receive a license from the government, and since 1977 the government has limited the number of licenses issued. Norway restricts the number of fish farmers because of a desire to adapt production to market demand through balanced de- velopment. The limitation also is associated with the capacity of the nation's veterinary and extension services. The demand for licenses is strong, as was demonstrated in 1986 when 2,500 applicants competed for 150 new licenses. The number of hatchery and smelt operations, however, is not limited, and licenses for cultivating shellfish or other species of fish are granted more liberally. Norway also must consider the fact that aquaculture is growing rapidly in such places as British Columbia and Chile. Internally, the outlook, although promising, will be hampered by the regulations described earlier that prevent Norwegian fish farmers from ex- ploiting economy of scale in production and in the benefits of horizontal and vertical integration. An issue of increasing concern has to do with

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 225 ers' Sales Organization (NFFSO), is taking strong action to shore up prices. The NFFSO plans to borrow $200 million to finance the purchase and freezing of 20,000~0,000 tons of salmon to keep it off the fresh fish market. EXAMPLES OF AQUACULTURE POLICY IN OTHER NATIONS Several nations have been successful in developing strong aquaculture enterprises that make significant contributions to the national economy. Although such experiences are not directly exportable to the United States because of different social, cultural, demographic, and economic condi- tions, they may suggest some fruitful avenues for U.S. action. Examples of nations that are most similar to the United States in culture and political organization are discussed below in order to maximize the potential ap- plicability of any lessons that can be learned. Canada Status Canada has a long aquaculture history dating back to turn-of-the-century oyster farms. Both the federal government and university structures have supported and encouraged expansion and development. The British Columbia oyster industry began around the turn of the cen- tury and has been growing at a steady pace ever since. Clam aquaculture (primarily the Manila clam) is in the development stage, fueled by strong markets. Present efforts are targeting pseudofarming, which involves col- lecting wild spat and raising them on tidal flats under more optimal condi- tions. Mussel and scallop aquaculture research is also being spurred by strong markets but is hampered by culture problems. Regulations The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries administers the aquaculture lease program, which includes permits, licenses, and reviews. Aquaculture product licenses and permits include the aquaculture license from the Min- istry of Agriculture and Fisheries, a municipal business license, a municipal sewage disposal permit, and a waste management permit. In addition, a shell- fish transport permit is required. Site requirements include a federal water lot lease if operating on federal land and an occupation lease from the Ministry of Crown Lands. In addition, there may be local zoning ordi- nances.

224 APPENDIX A Biological issues relate to biological and chemical unknowns in the areas of captive breeding, larval rearing, feed production for each life stage and appropriate to specific culture systems, and engineering problems in recir- culating, closed or semiclosed, high-intensity culture systems. Socioeconomic issues involve regulatory and administrative constraints, inadequacy of information and advice to investors, product marketing, and market saturation, to name but a few. Culture systems and practices have been used to overcome constraints to marine aquaculture in other countries. Following is a summary discussion of these issues and their applicability to similar problems in the United States: · Waste is being reduced by the development of methods to utilize prop- erly the diets offered, to remove suspended solids efficiently, to incorporate water treatment and water reuse systems, and to collect waste for use as fertilizer. · User conflicts over coastal resources are reduced by moving fish farms out into deeper water or to land-based facilities, or by zoning and clustering farms in selected sites. · Member countries of the International Council on Exploration of the Seas (ICES) have adopted a Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Ad- verse Effects Arising From Introduction of Nonindigenous Marine Species. · Attempts to circumvent disease and contamination of aquaculture prod- ucts are carried out by individual countries. They include requiring health certificates for imports, as in North Sea countries for imported mussels; monitoring for toxic dinoflagellates and toxicity testing in Japan; requiring deputation of bivalves at specified centers in Spain; and maintaining strict quality standards with regular inspection in the Netherlands. Regulations generally pertain only to mollusks; they have been instigated in response to actual or potential health risks associated with eating these products. · Research on controlled spawning to reduce aquaculture's dependence on wild seed, along with the development of larval rearing technology, is given priority in Japan, Norway, and many other countries. · There has been some development toward improved feed quality to increase food conversion and to decrease waste (i.e., phosphorus). · Some examples of solutions to socioeconomic constraints are the de- velopment of planned marketing strategies to promote future growth, gov- ernment regulations that are conducive to growth in Canada (Price Water- house, 1990), and self-imposed restraints on 1989 salmon production in Norway in the face of a world market excess (Folsom and McFetters, 19901. In the latter case, the farming industry, through the Norwegian Fish Farm-

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 223 producing about 5 percent each are Mexico, Honduras, Peru, and Colombia; Guatemala, Panama, and Brazil produced slightly less. Much of the pro- duction in the Western Hemisphere comes from extensive farms, but the trend is toward developing semi-intensive farming. Penaeus vannamei ac- counts for 92 percent of the production of farm-raised shrimp, which relies on wild shrimp for the production of seed stock. Disease represents the biggest obstacle to the future of shrimp farming in the Western Hemisphere. In the spring of 1990, Ecuador's $300 million a year industry was near collapse as a weather-induced disease epidemic struck its ponds and hatch- eries (Rosenberry, 1990~. It is not clear what the ultimate result of this epidemic will be, but production in mid-1990 had already been reduced by 40 percent; many of the ponds are not in operation, and no restocking is planned because of disease and reductions in seed stock availability. Despite proximity to the U.S. market, the development of aquaculture in Latin American countries is slowed by government intervention, corruption, regulations, and permitting delays (often of one or two years) "all the products of monumental bureaucracies" (Rosenberry, 19901. Recent changes in the political and economic environments in many of these countries (e.g., Mexico, Venezuela, Brazil, and Peru) are viewed as encouraging to the prospects for development of the shrimp farming industry. INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS Issues of Concern Issues faced by other countries include: · pollution of coastal waters (particularly in Asia), · shortage of coastal areas for expansion in Japan and many parts of the world. · shrimp disease in Ecuador and Taiwan, and · lack of governmental policies or institutional support for mariculture development. Environmental impacts of aquaculture include: · self-pollution through toxic and organic waste discharges; · buildup of suspended solids; · reduction in oxygen levels and introduction or augmentation of disease; · habitat impairment and loss of natural resources; · risks associated with transfers and introduction of exotics (of particu- lar concern in Europe and the United States); and · competitive use of resources, including land, water, and plant and animal resources.

222 Finfish APPENDIX A Finfish aquaculture registered a rapid growth in British Columbia: in 1976- 1977 there were 5 farms licensed for marine trout and salmon, 51 freshwater trout sites, 2 carp sites, and 1 site licensed for carp and trout. In 1988, there were a total of 212 marine finfish sites and 149 freshwater trout sites (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 19901. Rainbow trout has been reared since the l950s in freshwater systems such as tanks, ponds, and raceways. Production increased by 10 percent yearly from 1976 to 1986 (when 100.8 metric tons of freshwater trout were sold commercially) (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 19901. More recently, rainbow trout has been raised in marine net-pen systems and sold commercially as "salmon trout." Salmon The British Columbia salmon farming industry has grown from 4 com- mercial farms in 1981 to 135 operating farm sites in 1989 and an estimated 120 sites in 1990 (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 1990~. In 1989 the industry produced 12,385 metric tons of salmon with a landed value of Can $82.1 million (Egan and Kenney, 1990~. Until 1986, coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) was the dominant species cultivated (comprising 76 percent of the total farmed production that year), and the industry was dependent on government supplies of eyed eggs. Since then, the industry has become self-sufficient in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) brood stock supply, and production of this species is now dominant (73 percent of the 1989 production), a shift attrib- uted to early maturation and size problems related to coho production (Egan and Kenney, 19901. Atlantic salmon was first cultivated commer- cially in net pens in 1986 and has since increased to 8 percent of the total 1989 production. Its share is expected to increase further in the future, due to good growth and the higher price commanded in relation to the Pacific species (Egan and Kenney, 19901. The salmon farming industry in eastern Canada is concentrated in the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick, where approximately 49 salmon farms are currently operating. Together these farms have a combined estimated capacity of 8,500 metric tons (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 1990~. Latin America The major aquaculture product in Latin America is shrimp. Shrimp farmers in the Western Hemisphere accounted for 11 percent of world production, or 61,000 metric tons in 1989. Ecuador produced 65 percent; countries

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 221 the market price for salmon make it a risky investment venture (Cook, 1990; Egan and Kenney, 1990~. Salmon, oysters, mussels, and marine trout currently dominate the aqua- culture industry, but new species are in the research and development stage. Species expected to make a significant contribution to commercial aquacul- ture in Canada in the next 10 years include arctic char, bay scallops, nori, and Irish moss (Aiken, 19901. Research to develop new products is carried out by federal and provincial scientists, often in cooperation with private companies. A good example of this teamwork is the development of the commercial culture of Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) in Nova Scotia, based on collaboration between the National Research Council of Canada and Acadia Seaplants Ltd. (Isaacs, 19901. During the 1990 World Aquaculture Society meeting in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans announced a government com- mitment to development of a world-class aquaculture industry in Canada in the 1990s. Implementation of this long-term strategy will be achieved by the support of science and technology, provision of an inspection system, assistance with market and commercial analysis, as well as advocacy and dialogue to promote sustained growth and development. Shellfish Two species of oysters are cultivated commercially: the Pacific or Japa- nese oyster (Crassotrea gigasJ and the American or Virginia oyster Crassotrea virginica. A third species, the European (or Belon) oyster Ostrea edulis is under development in Nova Scotia. Oysters are produced by three methods in British Columbia: intertidal bottom culture, near-bottom culture, and off-bottom culture. Three years may be required to grow a marketable oyster on the bottom, but this can be cut to two years off-bottom. Suspen- sion culture will produce more than 25 times the yield per unit area than can be obtained with bottom culture (Aiken, 19901. An estimated 3,900 metric tons of oysters were produced in British Columbia in 1989 (Price Waterhouse Management Consultants, 1990~. Mussel (Mytilus edulisJ culture in Atlantic Canada has expanded consider- ably in the past 10 years, and in 1989 the five Atlantic provinces produced 3,137 tons of mussels valued at $5,520,000 (Muise, 1990~. Cultivation de- veloped in eastern Canada utilizes suspension technology (a long line sys- tem) to produce a premium quality product. Other shellfish considered for commercial culture in Canada are Manila clams (Venerupis japonica J; several species of scallops, including Argopecten irradians and Patino- pecten yessoensis; and the pinto abalone (Haliotis kamchathanaJ (Aiken, 1990~.

220 APPENDIX A survival rates of an increasingly diverse group of warm water finfish will improve. Aquaculture production in the European Community (EC) reached 847,000 metric tons in 1989, worth more than 7,900 million ECUs. Finfish produc- tion is dominated by rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykissJ, with produc- tion levels reaching 144,000 metric tons in 1989 and cultivated in most countries, and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salary, cultivated in the United King- dom, Ireland, France, and Spain (35,000 metric tons in 19894. Other spe- cies commonly cultivated are carp (Cyprinus carpioJ, catfish (Ictaluridae), European eel (Anguilla anguillaJ, and increasingly sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax', sea bream (Sparus aurata and Diplodus spp.), and turbot (Scophthalmus maximus'. Additionally, mullet (Mugil' and yellowtail (Seriola) are culti- vated on a smaller scale, along with, on an experimental scale, sturgeon (Acipenser spp.) and halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). Among the shellfish, production is dominated by mussels (Mytilus spp.), raised in either bottom culture (Ireland, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, and France) or rope culture (the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, France, and Italy), and oysters (Ostrea edulis and Crassostrea gigasJ. Clam culture (Ruditapes phillippinarum and Tapes semidecussata' is a more re- cent industry and is practiced in France, Spain, Portugal, and Ireland in extensive systems, often combined with other shellfish culture. Crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus and Astacus astacus, are also cultivated in small amounts, and prawns (Penaeus japonicus and P. kerathurus) are being cul- tured in extensive or semi-intensive systems at an experimental level in France and Spain. For the near future, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and France are expected to display the fastest growth in aquaculture production of all countries in the EC, an expansion that is mostly associated with the growth of sea bass, sea bream, and turbot production (which is expected to increase in France). Shellfish production is also expected to increase. Future production of salmon and trout will be determined primarily by marketing conditions. Catfish, carp, and mullet production currently has little market appeal. Overall, aquaculture production in the EC is expected to reach 966,000 metric tons in 1995, a 15 percent increase over the 1989 levels. Canada The aquaculture industry in Canada grew in part because of a strong commitment by federal and provincial governments, and a history of suc- cess in fisheries export and marketing. During the past 10 years, there has been a phenomenal growth in the commercial salmon farming industry, which is expected to continue for the next 10 years, although fluctuations in

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 219 cause eels require high water temperatures, energy requirements were met by growing them in recirculating systems in insulated buildings. For the effort to be profitable, rearing densities were increased so that the use of pure oxygen and water purification were required. This led to the develop- ment of advanced recirculation systems with suspended solid removal by sieving and ammonia removal by biological filters. Fish are fed with self- feeders or automatic feeders and may reach a biomass as high as 200 kg per cubic meter. These highly sophisticated systems allow farmers in northern Europe to grow eels successfully under severe climatic conditions and at the same time to greatly reduce the effluents and waste discharged into the environment (Gousset, 19901. Net-pen culture of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar' is practiced in Norway, Scotland, Ireland, and the Farce Islands. In Norway, the leading world producer of farmed salmon, aquaculture ventures developed in the early 1970s, and industry's output has since grown exponentially from 500 metric tons in 1971 to an estimated 120,000 metric tons in 1989. In Norway, about 20 farms closed in 1989 as a consequence of pressure from government and creditors, and an additional 50 to 70 farms were expected to follow. As a consequence of the market crisis, both Norway and Scotland (the second largest producer of farmed salmon) decreased the number of smelts stocked during that year, and production from those two regions was expected to level off for 1990-1991 (Needham, 19901. The vulnerability of the industry to unfavorable market conditions illustrates one of the major problems that faces salmon aquaculture's farmers and investors: the long life cycles (three years from egg to market-size adult for Atlantic salmon) force firms to make production decisions (such as the number of smelts to stock in any particular year) in many cases before accurate price forecasts can be made for the timing of the harvest. This leaves the industry extremely exposed to unstable marketing conditions, which are made even more volatile by the unpredictability of wild catches. Central and Southern Europe In recent years, considerable progress has been made in the development of mass rearing of European temperate marine fish species such as Euro- pean sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Rapid expansion in marine fish farm- ing has accompanied improvements in larval rearing techniques and finan- cial support from national governments as well as the European Community. With this growth established, fish farms faced with increased competition from newcomers are searching for new markets, trying to improve growth rates, and diversifying with new species. It is expected that through im- proved nutritional quality of live foods and better hygiene procedures,

218 APPENDIX A numbers of spawners from the wild. Production could be enhanced by tech- niques to induce maturation and to rear cultured seed to adult spawners. Japan is also culturing coho salmon in net pens, chum salmon for ocean ranching, a species of Paralichthys flounders, red sea bream, and abalone. Seaweed culture is based on wild collection of spores, followed by labora- tory culture of seedlings, with transfer of buds to string or nets and grow-out in coastal waters. Production constraints are weather conditions and disease. Deterioration of the water around farms occurs with long-term, high-density culture, resulting in slow growth and disease. Constraints on aquaculture development in Asia are environmental (e.g., lack of suitable sites, pollution, exposure to natural hazards, and human fac- tors), biotechnological (e.g., dependence on wild stocks, inadequate feed, disease outbreaks), and socioeconomic (e.g., user conflicts in coastal zones, lack of institutional support, limited demand, and market saturation). Some solutions to these problems lie in research and development activities focused on fish diets, planned production, quality control, and new markets (Mito and Fukuhura, 19881. Northern Europe The major contribution from northern European countries has been the development of net pen culture of salmon and highly intensive culture in raceways and tanks for salmonids and the European eel (Anguilla anguillaJ. At present, a concerted effort is under way in the region to develop mass culture of cod (Gadus morhua) and Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). The Norwegian Fisheries Research Council and the Fish Farmers Sales As- sociation began a national research program in 1987 with the objective of developing economically feasible methods for farming cold water species. These two species, along with the wolffish (Anarhichas lupusJ, were found to be the most promising marine species. Brood stock cod have been do- mesticated, and a method for stripping captive halibut has been established. Rearing will probably be carried out in large plastic bags floating in enclo- sures with grow-out (to market size) in cages. Inadequate knowledge of larval nutrition at the first exogenous feeding is the main constraint in mass rearing of these cold water species (Tilseth, 19901. Expertise in controlled culture conditions and in environmental studies continues to be an impor- tant area for aquaculture development in Europe. An excellent example of the application of technology to aquaculture is the development of modern eel farming. Denmark was a major producer of European eel, but in the late 1970s, production fell drastically while exports remained high. Denmark had to import eels to support its export industry, a situation that caused the Danish Water Quality Institute (followed by the Danish Aquaculture Institute) to develop eel farming (Gousset, 19901. Be-

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 217 auction (Juario and Benitez, 1988~. China is by far the largest producer, accounting for slightly more than 50 percent of the finfish (all freshwater) and more than 25 percent of all crustacean, molluscan, and seaweed world production. In China as in many other Asian countries, aquaculture tech- nology, for the most part, is simple, utilizing natural resources and an abun- dant labor force to grow out products in extensive or semi-intensive sys- tems. An exception is the application of highly advanced genetics techniques (i.e., cell culture, gene transplants) to develop new and disease-resistant strains of carp. Recently, some large commercial investments have been made in new and intensive farms for marine shrimp. Japan is a major producer and consumer of aquaculture products, taking more than 1 million tons in 1988. Principal species for culture include red sea bream (Pagrus major), black sea bream (Acanthopagrus schelegi), yel- lowtail (Seriola guinqueradiata), Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), Buffer fish (Takifu~u rubripes), Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus), aba- lone (Nordicus discus), blood ark shell (Scapharca broughtonii), and edible seaweeds (Porphyra, Undaria, Laminaria). Production of several species (i.e., coho salmon, rainbow trout, oyster, and laver, a seaweed) depends entirely on culture. Growing inedible ani- mals such as pearl oysters and ornamental fish is an important aspect of aquaculture in Japan and elsewhere. Like the culture of ornamental fish in the United States, it is already a thriving industry that could eventually be expanded to include many marine fish. Culture techniques for finfish, in general, include spawning fish in cap- tivity either with hormone injections or with temperature and/or photope- riod control, intensive culture through the larval stage, and grow-out to marketable size in floating net cages. Production constraints are due to environmental deterioration around the farming grounds that can retard growth and cause mortality. Shrimp culture in Japan still relies heavily on wild stock, and the scarcity of gravid females greatly influences prices and brood stock production. Larval shrimp are reared in high-density, intensive systems, and fry are grown to marketable size in ponds. Production con- straints include the lack of reliable egg production and the need for a practical diet to substitute for live food to rear the young. In light of these problems, it is interesting to note that the banana prawn (Penaeus merguiensis) in Singapore can be cultured intensively and the brood stock can be spawned in captivity, so many of the constraints on shrimp culture are removed. Of the 19 species of shellfish reared in Japan, 12 are propagated artifi- cially. Hatchery-bred blood ark shell and noble scallop are cultured artifi- cially to marketable size, and abalones are usually released into the sea. Other species are grown by collecting wild spat and transplanting them to grow-out areas. It has become increasingly difficult to procure sufficient

216 APPENDIX A species does not stray, as is the case with oysters and abalone, or when a species can be trained or migrates naturally to return to a site, as with some salmon. Ocean ranching may be the system of choice for most mollusk and algae culture. Similar to ocean ranching is stock enhancement, the pro- duction of large numbers of young that are released to the sea and harvested by ordinary fisheries methods. The value of such stocking programs in in- creasing fisheries production is still under debate, but stocking is being carried out in the United States as well as in Japan and Norway. Aquaculture goals vary from country to country but generally include the following: · generation of needed and inexpensive protein; · reliable production of quality products not readily available from natu- rally occurring sources; · expansion of foreign trade by increasing exports or reducing imports; · development of new industry and jobs; and · enhancement or maintenance of fishery resources through stocking. All but the first of these goals are important in driving aquaculture develop- ment in the United States. ROLE OF GOVERNMENT Government has played a pivotal role in aquaculture development in many countries that have become world leaders in marine aquaculture, in- cluding Norway, Denmark, France, Canada, and Japan. For the most part, these groups are concerned with both fisheries and marine aquaculture, and much of the aquaculture development emanates from a fisheries manage- ment perspective. Long-range planning and a strong commitment by the central government in Norway, and by central and provincial governments in Canada, have been responsible for the rapid growth of marine aquacul- ture in those countries. A good example is the Canadian government's support of the emerging pen-raised salmon industry in New Brunswick. Impressive growth of this industry was in part a result of $5 million in industry development funds from the New Brunswick government, the es- tablishment of a government-funded demonstration farm, and the provision of grants and extension services (Bettencourt and Anderson, 19901. STATUS OF MARINE AQUACULTURE BY REGION Asia The Asia-Pacific region is the center of development of world aquacul- ture and accounts for approximately 80 percent of world aquaculture pro-

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE Economics of World Aquaculture The monetary value of the 1988 world aquaculture crop of 14 mmt is estimated to be $22.5 billion (U.S.), an increase of 19 percent from the $18.8 billion value of the 1987 crop and more than twice that of the 1985 yield ($13.1 billion) (FAO, 1990) (Table A-6~. Of the 144 countries that now report aquaculture statistics to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, only 60 provided information on prices and value, so total value estimates are based just on those reports. How- ever, those 60 include most of the total production. The value of world aquaculture has clearly increased much more rapidly than the size of the crop, probably owing mainly to world inflation. Some of the increased value may result from recent emphasis on high-priced luxury species (i.e., mollusks, shrimp, salmon), but the overall increase in produc- tion has resulted as much from low-value crops, such as seaweed, as from more expensive items. MARINE AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND POLICIES Throughout the world, the most common form of marine aquaculture is carried out by collecting and growing "wild seed" in ponds, cages, or other enclosures, with the addition of fertilizer and, in some cases, food. Culture practices are primitive, labor and monetary inputs are small, and production is low. Such extensive marine aquaculture is practiced in warm parts of the world in countries that have ample available coastal waters and a traditional marine diet. Even in areas where intensive culture is practiced, the industry often depends on collections from the sea in the form of gravid females, fertilized eggs, spat, postlarvae, or juvenile animals. This practice sooner or later conflicts with fisheries resources and is not a viable alternative for the U.S. aquaculture industry. The trend in developed countries is toward intensive culture, with breeding, rearing, and harvesting in controlled facilities using high stocking densities and formulated feeds. The ultimate objective is regular production of a high quality product at a designated time, independent of season. Examples of marine animals under intensive culture are red sea bream, yellowtail, and Japanese flounder in Japan; sea bream, sea bass, and turbot in temperate Euro- pean countries; European eel and salmon in northern Europe, Japan, North America, Chile, and New Zealand; and the banana prawn in Singapore, as well as the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon' throughout Southeast Asia (Juario and Benitez, 1988; Gousset, 19901. Other species under investigation for intensive culture include cod, halibut, and dolphin (Tilseth, 19901. Bridging the gap between extensive and intensive systems, ocean ranch- ~ng is best known in the production of salmon and is used when the cultured i. 215

214 APPENDIX A from the plants, have widespread commercial value as emulsifying or sus- pending agents in the food, drug, and cosmetic industries. The dwindling supply of wild stock of these seaweeds has led to their cultivation in several countries. About one-half of the Chinese crop of Laminaria is used for extraction of algenic acid; the other half is consumed as food. The red seaweed Gracilaria is grown in Taiwan and Chile as a source of agar; another red algae, Eucheuma, is cultured in the Philippines for its carrag- eenan content. A total of 4 mmt of seaweed was grown worldwide in 1988, 90 percent in Asia. This is the largest group, by weight but not by value, of cultivated marine organisms, representing 25 percent of the total and about 42 percent of the marine component. It should be pointed out that seaweeds are sometimes not included in aquaculture statistics (an omission that may lead to considerable confusion when comparing data). If seaweed is omitted from consideration, total world aquaculture production for 1988 was 11 mmt., of which only about 5 mmt (43 percent) were from marine aquaculture. TABLE A-6 Value of Aquaculture Production by Leading Countries, 1984-1987 (hundred U.S. dollars) 1984 1985 1986 1987 China 4,O59,465 4,788,214 5,440,725 6,078,454 Japan 2,263,753 2,279,309 3,439,373 3,895,790 Taiwan PC 607,576 631,672 818,655 1,110,282 India 746,300 746,300 746,300 746,300 United States 500,403 429,410 484,211 563,649 Philippines 446,639 468,332 511,182 560,317 USSR 357,279 365,596 464,481 537,767 Ecuador 235,200 211,435 214,781 510,671 France 226,178 243,857 425,298 474,033 Vietnam 327,400 375,600 433,080 459,480 Korea, Republic of 253,278 266,222 327,310 438,560 Korea, Democratic People's Republic 398,700 420,700 420,700 420,700 Indonesia 264,805 351,393 375,427 385,740 Norway 133,357 177,534 233,343 314,348 Italy 140,008 140,247 185,612 238,153 Thailand 105,989 114,848 147,485 237,803 Other Total world production 12,430,634 13,592,725 16,345,988 18,911,991 SOURCE: FAO Fisheries Circular No. 815, Rev. 1, 1989.

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 213 Stake culture of oysters in Japan. Lea I_ __ c" favored culture product. Scallop farms have now been started up in Peru, Chile, Canada, the United States, and China. Bivalve mollusk farming is, by far, the most successful form of marine animal culture; it is more than twice as productive as finfish and crustacean culture combined. Despite the strong emphasis and publicity given to penaeid shrimp culture in recent years, mollusk farming has been advancing much more rapidly, and the value of the product is, in most cases, equally attractive. Seaweed Culture Different species of seaweed have long been regarded as both luxury and staple foods or food supplements in many Asian countries. The red alga Porphyra, grown and marketed as nori in Japan, is among the most costly of seafood. The kelp Laminaria, also grown in Japan, was formerly exported in quantity to China, whose inhabitants are susceptible to the glan- dular disease goiter, caused by an iodine deficiency, a condition remedied by a seaweed dietary supplement. Today, China grows more than 1 mmt (dry weight) of Laminaria annually and now exports part of the crop to Japan (Tseng, 19811. In addition to their direct use as human food, many seaweeds contain the polysaccharides agar, algenic acid, or carrageenan, which, when extracted

212 APPENDIX A has constructed some 1,000 hatcheries to produce juvenile shrimp for stock- ing in aquaculture ponds; Ecuador has 150 hatcheries; the United States has only 3 (Tables A-4 and A-S). Overall, Asia has approximately 4,500 hatcheries, whereas the Western Hemisphere has a little more than 200 (Table Am. Mollusk Culture Bivalve mollusks (i.e., oysters, clams, mussels, scallops) are sessile, grow without confinement, and feed on natural food organisms (i.e., unicellular algae suspended in the water). Their cultivation on privately owned or leased bottom is therefore simple and inexpensive, and differs little from capture fishing on public grounds. In either case, aquaculture is involved if and when natural stocks become depleted and must be enhanced by reseed- ing the bottom. Cultivation of seed in hatcheries is a well-developed technology for most important commercial species of mollusks that was initiated in the United States in the 1920s and is now widely practiced around the world. How- ever, hatchery production of seed is costly; it may often be avoided by collecting natural seed or enhancing the natural set of seed by placing seed or spat collectors at strategic times and locations in the growing area. Shellfish larvae are, of course, most abundant where there are large popula- tions of adult animals, as at major aquaculture sites, most of which may consequently collect their own seed without recourse to hatcheries. The Japanese discovered many years ago that oysters could be grown much more quickly and abundantly in a three-dimensional mode, from sur- face to bottom, on ropes or wires suspended from rafts. The shellfish there- by have access to a much greater supply of food; they are protected from sedimentation and benthic predators; and vastly more animals may be grown per unit area than by traditional bottom culture methods. Raft cul- ture of oysters, mussels, and scallops is now common practice in those countries that are the leading producers of bivalve mollusks (i.e., Japan, China, Taiwan, North and South Korea, Spain). In most if not all such operations, natural seed is collected at or near the culture site. Of the 3 mint of mollusks cultured in 1988, 67 percent were grown in East Asia and another 20 percent in Europe (Table A-11. The Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas), grown most abundantly in Japan but now suc- cessfully introduced around the world, is the leading cultured bivalve spe- cies (0.8 mmtJ. The several species of mussels now grown in many differ- ent countries together yielded 1 mmt; various clam species accounted for another 0.4 mmt; and the Japanese scallop, first grown in that country only about five years ago, had already contributed 0.3 mmt by 1988 (FAO, 1990~. If the Japanese experience is typical, scallops, which grow extremely fast and command a high market price, may overtake other bivalve species as a

REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 211 (81 percent) of this production is concentrated in the Eastern Hemisphere (Southeast Asia) (Table A-3. A fairly recent and dramatic entry to shrimp farming has been mainland China, which in just a decade or so has become the world's leading producer of aquacultured shrimp (Table A-4~(Rosen- berry, 1991a,b). Western Hemisphere production is led by Ecuador (Aiken, 1990; Rosenberry, l991a,b), which contributes 75 percent of the region's farmed production, whereas the United States produces only about 1 percent (Table A-5~. China TABLE A-4 Eastern Hemisphere Shrimp Production, 1991 Area in Production Production Yield Number of Number of Country (%) (acres) (lb/acre) Hatcheries Farms China 26.1 345,800 923 1,000 2,000 Indonesia 25.2 494,000 623 250 20,000 Thailand 19.7 197,600 1,255 2,000 3,000 India 6.3 160,550 479 16 2,500 Philippines 5.4 123,500 534 250 3,000 Vietnam 5.4 395,200 167 120 1,000 Taiwan 5.4 19,760 3,340 800 2,000 Bangladesh 4.5 247,000 223 0 1,000 Other 1.4 39,520 445 25 175 Japan 0.6 1,235 6,235 40 165 Total 100 2,024,165 602 4,501 34,840 SOURCE: Rosenberry (199lb). TABLE A-5 Western Hemisphere Shrimp Production, 1991 Area in Production Production Yield Number of Number of Country (%) (acres) (lb/acre) Hatcheries Farms Ecuador 74.9 358,150 615 150 1,700 Colombia 6.7 9,880 2,004 20 30 Mexico 3.7 12,350 891 6 100 Honduras 3.4 17,290 573 2 25 Panama 3.0 9,880 891 6 40 Peru 2.6 9,880 779 3 60 United States 1.2 1,112 3,167 3 25 Other 4.5 11,856 1,113 17 75 Total 100 430,398 683 207 2,055 SOURCE: Rosenberry ( l 991 b).

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REVIEW OF WORLD AQUACULTURE 209 out quickly and easily to a marketable adult in shallow estuarine ponds, shrimp culture spread to the Philippines and Indonesia. By the late 1970s, the shrimp farming industry had spread to the Western Hemisphere, where it was initially centered in the extensive estuarine sys- tem of Ecuador's Guayas River and Gulf of Guayaquil. Subsequently the industry moved into virtually all of the tropical maritime countries of South and Central America, Mexico, and the southern parts of the United States. However, Ecuador remains the major producer in the Western Hemisphere. As in the case of shrimp farming in Asia, the Latin American industry is based on the collection of postlarvae from the wild, supplemented as neces- sary by hatchery production of young from wild-caught gravid females. Dependence on wild postlarvae or gravid females restricts the location of shrimp farms to coastal regions, where natural populations occur in abun- dance. Even in those locations, supplies may be erratic and undependable, and they may disappear entirely with the onset of unfavorable climatic phenomena such as the South American E1 Nino. Shrimp aquaculture is the production of shrimp involving control of one or more phases of their biological cycle or control of the environment in which they develop. Management systems may be extensive, such as large seminatural or natural marsh impoundments or rice fields (low stocking rates and little or no feeding and water exchange); semi-intensive, such as large drainable ponds (medium stocking, feeding, and water exchange); or intensive, such as small, highly controllable ponds (high stocking rates, water circulation and exchange, and nutritionally complete diets). Indoor raceways would exhibit the highest degree of technology, with control of nutrition and environmental requirements for year-round growth. However, to date no indoor raceways have proved economically viable for commer- cial production of shrimp. Worldwide, the significance of shrimp aquaculture has increased dra- matically over the past decade. In 1980, only about 2 percent of the world's shrimp supply was produced by aquaculture, whereas by 1990 farmers were supplying 25 percent of the market (Table A-2) (Rosenberry, 1991a). Most TABLE A-2 World Shrimp Production, 1991 (heads-on) Amount Percentage of Source (mmt) World Production Fisheries 1.4967 75 (4.327 billion lb) Aquaculture 0.633 25 (1.393 billion lb) SOURCE: Rosenberry ( 1991 b).

208 APPENDIX A A more recent development in marine finfish culture is the growth of salmonids in net pens of cages in protected coastal waters. For many years, salmon have been hatchery spawned and reared to small size, at which stage they are physiologically adapted for introduction to salt water; they are then released to the ocean to enhance natural stocks. Beginning about 1970, attempts were made to rear Pacific salmon smelt in cages in the Puget Sound area of Washington. The initial product, a 150- to 250-gram (g) "pan- sized" salmon that could be reared in one growing season, did not prove to be very successful in the marketplace, and the practice gradually dwindled. A decade later, Norwegians initiated the net-cage culture of Atlantic salmon in their large fjord systems, this time holding the fish for two growing seasons, and feeding them a carefully formulated pelleted diet until they reached a size of 4-5 kilograms (kg). The practice proved highly successful, a single 12 x 12 meter cage producing as much as 5-10 tons of salmon over an 18-month grow-out period. Atlantic salmon cage culture has now spread to the United Kingdom, France, Spain, both coasts of the United States and Canada, Chile, Australia, and New Zealand; in 1988, nearly 0.2 mmt were produced worldwide. Several other marine finfish are currently grown successfully in smaller quantities in various parts of the world. These include gilthead sea bream, sea bass, and turbot in Europe; aiyu, flounder, puffer fish, red and black sea bream, and several other species in Japan; and the estuarine grouper in Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Together, annual production of the several marine finfish now in culture probably approaches 1 mmt, only about 20 percent of freshwater finfish culture. Crustacean Culture The culture of crustaceans is almost entirely restricted to two groups of shrimp or prawns: the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium and several species of marine shrimp of the genus Penaeus. After development of the technology for rearing Macrobrachium in Ma- laysia in the early 1960s, there was much interest in growing the species throughout the world's tropics. Interest has flagged during the past decade, due more to marketing than to technical problems and to the inability of the product to compete with marine species. Macrobrachium spp. are still grown successfully in a number of small scattered operations, with produc- tion totaling approximately 0.02 mmt. Marine (penaeid) shrimp culture, on the other hand, is one of the fastest growing and economically most successful forms of aquaculture in practice today. The technology for hatchery spawning of gravid (fertile) female penaeids and controlled rearing of their larvae in captivity, were first devel- oped more than 50 years ago in Japan and rapidly spread throughout Southeast Asia. When it was found that the postlarvae could be grown r

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Appendix A Review of World Aquaculture MAJOR WORLD AQUACULTURE PRODUCTS Finfish Culture Table A-1 provides an overview of world aquaculture production in 1987 by region and type of seafood. Marine and freshwater species are combined in the available statistics on world production. Historically, world aquacul- ture has been dominated by the pond culture of freshwater finfish, particu- larly the various species of carp (common, Chinese, Indian) grown through- out Europe and Asia. Together, all varieties of carp still account for approximately 4 million metric tons (mmt), or more than one-quarter of the world's annual production of finfish cultured in fresh water. More recently, other species of finfish have contributed significantly to freshwater aqua- culture, such as tilapia (0.3 mmt), rainbow trout (0.2 mmt), channel catfish (0.2 mmt), and eel (0.1 mmt). These, and minor contributions from crayfish culture (0.03 mmt) and the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium (0.03 mmt), bring the total production of freshwater organisms to nearly 5 mmt, or about one-third of the world's total. The cultivation of marine finfish has lagged far behind that of freshwater species. The oldest such practices are the growing of milkfish in the Philip- pines, Indonesia, and other tropical Asian countries (0.3 mmt) and of the yellowtail (amberjack) in Japan (0.2 mint). Milkfish are grown in shallow estuarine ponds; yellowtail, in net cages. In both cases, rearing technology is relatively crude. Neither species can be matured or spawned routinely in captivity, so the industries are based on the collection of fry (juveniles) from the wild. Both species are still fed primarily natural food. 206

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180 MARINE AQUACULTURE Bergheim, A., and A. R. Selmer-Olsen. 1978. River pollution from a large trout farm in Norway. Aquaculture 36:267-270. Bergheim, A., A. Silversten, and A.R. Selmer-Olsen. 1982. Estimated pollution loadings from Norwegian fish farms. I. Investigations 1978-1979. Aquaculture 28:347-361. Bergheim, A., H. Hustveit, A. Kittlesen, and A.R. Selmer-Olsen. 1984. Estimated pollution loadings from Norwegian fish farms. I. Investigations 1978-1979. Aquaculture 28: 157- 168. Bettencourt, S.U., and J.L. Anderson. 1990. Pen-Reared Salmonid Aquaculture in the Northeastern United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Northeast Re- gional Aquaculture Center Report 100. Kingston, R.I. Beveridge, M.C.M. 1987. Cage Aquaculture. Farnham, England: Fishing News Books, Ltd. 332 pp. Bevin, D. 1988. Problems of managing mixed-stock salmon fisheries. In Salmon Production, Management, and Allocation Biological, Economic and Policy Is- sues, William J. McNeil, ed. Oregon State University Press. Bidwell, C.A., C.L. Chrisman, and G.S. Lisbey. 1985. Polyploidy induced by heat shock in channel catfish. Aquaculture 51:25-32. Biedenback, J.M., L.L. Smith, T.K. Thomsen, and A.L. Lawrence. 1989. Use of the nematode Panagrellus redivivus as an Artemia replacement in a larval penaeid diet. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 20~21:61-71. Billard, R. 1987. The control of fish reproduction in aquaculture. Pp. 309-350 in Realism in Aquaculture: Achievements, Constraints, Perspectives, M. Bilio, H. Rosenthal, and C. Sindermann, eds. European Aquaculture Society, Breden, Belgium. Binkowski, F.P., and S.I. Doroshev. 1985. Epilogue: A perspective on sturgeon culture. Pp. 147-152 in North American Sturgeons: Biology and Aquaculture Potential, Binkowski, F.P., and S.D. Doroshev, eds., Dordrecht: Dr. W. Junk Publishers. Boersen, G., and H. Westers. 1986. Waste solids control in hatchery raceways. Prog. Fish-Culturist 48: 151 - 154. Bondari, K. 1986. Response of channel catfish to multi-factor and divergent selec- tion of economic traits. Aquaculture 57~1-4):163-170. Bowden, G. 1981. Pp. 236-241 in Coastal Aquaculture Law and Policy: A Case Study of California. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. Boyce, J. 1990. A Comparison of Demand Models for Alaska Salmon, Department of Economics, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, under contract with Fisheries Research and Enhancement Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 102 PP. Boyd, C.E. 1978. Effluents from catfish ponds during fish harvest. J. Environ. Qual. 7:59-62. Boyd, C.E., R.P. Romaire, and E. Johnston. 1979. Water quality in channel catfish production ponds. J. Environ. Qual. 8:423-429. Braun, L. 1988. Spirulina: Food for the Future. Aqua-Topic. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 9 pp. Braun, L.M., and A.T. Young. 1988. Algae Culture and Uses: Microalgae. Quick Bibliography Series. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 9 pp.

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 177 environmental impacts of marine aquaculture, to develop appropriate miti- gation measures for unavoidable impacts, and to assign fair public and private rents and returns on such operations. Revision of Laws That Impede Development of Marine Aquaculture The Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as amended in 1981) Environmental preser- vation and the protection of indigenous species are important concerns; however, the Lacey Act, as presently constituted, creates a barrier to the development of marine aquaculture. Control points for regulating the move- ment of living fish between states should be based on scientific and eco- logical information rather than solely on state borders. It is recommended that Congress make appropriate changes in the Lacey Act based on a com- prehensive evaluation by the JSA of ecological and economic impacts to encourage the development of marine aquaculture within an environmen- tally sound regulatory framework. Creation of a Congressional Committee or Subcommittee on Aquaculture As human demand for seafood exceeds sustainable yield from traditional fisheries, dependence on capture fisheries is likely to shift to dependence on aquaculture. No mechanism currently exists for congressional policy- makers to anticipate this transition and make appropriate policy decisions; nor is there a mechanism for congressional oversight of the federal agency and JSA actions mandated by the National Aquaculture Act and its amend- ments. It is recommended that Congress consider creating an oversight committee or subcommittee on aquaculture to provide a formal linkage be- tween the House Agriculture Committee and the House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee to ensure the implementation of existing and fu- ture policies enacted to promote aquaculture. CONCLUSION A number of benefits will accrue to the nation from the addition of an economically vital, technologically advanced, and environmentally sensi- tive marine aquaculture industry. The prospects of this emerging enterprise are for healthy and vigorous growth, given a fair share of support for the development of an advanced scientific and engineering base, along with a reasonable and predictable regulatory framework. On this basis, the envi- ronmental problems that presently constrain marine aquaculture are likely to be resolved so that it can contribute to the continued vitality of the . . . nation's living marine resources.

176 MARINE AQUACULTURE · the numerous environmental and regulatory considerations that are involved in the development and use of coastal zone land and water. This complexity entails the involvement of a number of federal, state, and local agencies that are responsible for all aspects of the advocacy, promotion, conduct, and regulation of marine aquaculture, leading to an array of planning acts, policies, and regulations. For marine aquaculture to realize its potential, it must be addressed explicitly within a coordinated and coherent policy framework in federal, regional, and state ocean and coastal zone planning activities, to ensure its proper consideration and evaluation with respect to both resource development objectives and environmental impacts. Designation of marine aquaculture as a recognized coastal use under the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act and inclusion in state coastal management plans would be the first steps toward recognizing its role as a positive marine economic activity and streamlining the regulatory requirements that must be complied with to engage in a marine aquaculture enterprise. Although most of the recommendations outlined above can be imple- mented by the designated agencies through MOUs and by the JSA under existing legislation (the National Aquaculture Act of 1980 and the National Aquaculture Improvement Act of 1985), three unresolved policy issues need to be addressed through new legislation and, therefore, require con- gress~onal action. Completion of Federal Policy Framework fo'- Marine Aquaculture Coastal Zone To realize its potential, marine aquaculture must be ex- plicitly included in coastal zone plans that ensure its proper consideration and evaluation in development and environmental decisions. It is recom- mended that Congress designate marine aquaculture as a recognized use of the coastal zone in the Coastal Zone Management Act (P.L. 92-583, as amended in 1990, P.L. 101-508~. Such designation will stimulate states to include marine aquaculture in their coastal management plans for achieving a balanced approach to land use, resource development, and envi- ronmental regulation. Federal Waters Currently, no formal framework exists to govern the leasing and development of private commercial activities in public waters under federal jurisdiction. A predictable and orderly process for ensuring a fair return to the operator and to the public for the use of public resources is necessary to the development of marine aquaculture. It is recommended that Congress create a legal framework to foster appropriate development, to anticipate potential conflicts over proposed uses, to assess potential

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 175 · assessing the impact (or potential impact) of various nearshore and offshore marine aquaculture practices on the marine environment and fish- eries; and · administering the introduction and transfer of nonindigenous marine species. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationl National Sea Grant College Program The Sea Grant Program has supported research relevant to marine aqua- culture; however, a major initiative should be undertaken in the context of environmental issues, the basic biology of candidate species, and competing uses of resources. It is recommended that NOAA/Sea Grant be charged with leadership in support of research and extension programs on marine aquaculture-related topics focused on preservation of the marine environ- ment, understanding the life history of candidate species, and multiple use of marine resources, including associated social, economic, and policy issues. Candidate research topics include: · environmentally safe technology, methods, and systems for culturing marine species in the marine environment; · marine aquaculture technology that is synergistic with other uses of the sea (i.e., multiple use technologies); · life history and developmental biology of candidate species; · the socioeconomic dynamics of the marine aquaculture industry (e.g., effects on local employment patterns); · methods for addressing and resolving conflicts between marine aqua- culture and other competing users of the marine environment; · comparative studies of state practices regarding the regulation and promotion of marine aquaculture; and · alternative institutional and policy structures for managing marine aqua- culture in other countries. Congressional Action The development of marine aquaculture is beset with complexity that stems from unique factors that distinguish it from other kinds of agricul- tural activity. These are: · its interaction with other marine and coastal activities and interests— interactions often characterized by conflict; · the fact that although marine aquaculture is ocean based, it is depen- dent on the use of land and freshwater resources as well; and

74 MARINE AQUACULTURE · Design a model for local, state, and federal intergovernmental review of marine aquaculture projects to coordinate the permitting process, as well as state and federal regulation of marine aquaculture. Such a model will include guidelines for (1) planning the development of marine aquaculture business parks through provision of federal incentives; (2) assessing the potential impacts of marine aquaculture development on the marine envi- ronment and anticipating conflicts with competing uses of public resources and waters; and (3) developing appropriate mitigation measures for unavoidable impacts. · Conduct a comprehensive evaluation of impacts of the Lacey Act (P.L. 97-79, as amended in 1981) on marine aquaculture; formulate national or regional policies, guidelines, and procedures for importation and use (in- cluding release) of nonindigenous and genetically altered species and for health-related evaluation and certification; and make recommendations to Congress for appropriate changes in the Lacey Act to specifically en- courage development of marine aquaculture based on ecologically sound . . conslc .eratlons. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service It is recommended that the FWS continue to exercise leadership in the area of fisheries enhancement of anadromous species. Such leadership should include: · promoting the use of private aquaculture for enhancement of stocks of various anadromous species that are heavily fished or otherwise threatened or endangered; · supporting the development of technology for rearing and releasing anadromous stocks where needed; and · administering the introduction and transfer of nonindigenous anadro- mous species. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adm~nistrationl National Marine Fisheries Service It is recommended that NOAA/NMFS be charged with leadership in the management and assessment of stock-enhanced marine fisheries. Such leader- ship should include: · evaluating the effectiveness of existing and future stock enhancement programs; · supporting the development of technology for (1) producing stocks needed for nonanadromous marine fisheries enhancement and re- lated aquaculture, and (2) releasing marine stocks, where needed;

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 173 essary to create an environment for collaboration on needs and issues re- lated to marine aquaculture, and they must be reinforced with strong, high- level executive direction. With the MOUs in place, it is anticipated that the JSA can make a substantial contribution in influencing the actions of the participating agencies, going far beyond the role of coordination and information exchange now achievable. It is recommended that the USDA be charged with leadership in the promotion of commercial aquaculture including the research and support services (i.e., National Aquaculture Information Center) required, particu- larly in the areas of production, processing, distribution, and marketing of marine aquaculture products, especially as food products. The leadership role should involve: · promotion of marine aquaculture as a provider of wholesome food; · support of related R&D programs and establishment of related facil- ities for bringing new and improved systems and new species to commercial feasibility; · reinstatement of base-level support for the National Aquaculture Infor- mation Center (NAIC); and · collection and dissemination of production and marketing statistics and related information. To provide effective leadership for marine aquaculture, USDA will need to establish a formal entity focused on aquaculture, specifically including marine aquaculture at an appropriately high level within the agency, and to acquire expertise in marine aquaculture throughout its offices. Specific additional funds should be allocated for targeting marine aquaculture activ- ities in existing USDA programs such as the Agricultural Research Service, the Agricultural Extension Service, and the Economic Research Service. Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture It is recommended that in addition to its current role as a forum for interagency discussion, the JSA be charged with designing a streamlined planning and permitting process for marine aquaculture activities emphasiz- ing joint local, state, and federal coordination, and take responsibility for promoting the inclusion of marine aquaculture in the Coastal Zone Man- agement Act. Major unresolved issues that prevent marine aquaculture from achieving success should be addressed within JSA by the following actions: · Formulate a plan for the explicit inclusion of marine aquaculture inter- ests and impacts in coastal and offshore planning activities and in policies of state and federal agencies.

72 MARINE AQUACULTURE procedures, and systems to collect and exchange data and technical infor- mation; and · promotion of marine aquaculture as a vital component of fisheries stock enhancement by (1) facilitating aquaculture's role in the preservation of threatened or endangered species populations and of genetic diversity, including the involvement of private sector facilities; (2) developing pro- duction procedures for the broader range of species necessary for ef- fective mitigation of negative impacts on fish and shellfish stocks; and (3) developing and implementing improved methods for determining the effectiveness of using cultured stock for fish and shellfish enhance- ment activities in support of commercial, recreational, and ecological purposes. Federal Agency Responsibilities and Actions The federal agencies with primary jurisdiction over marine aquaculture activities include the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and two branches of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) the National Marine Fisheries Ser- vice (NMFS) and the National Sea Grant College Program. USDA was designated as lead agency in the National Aquaculture Act Amendments of 1985. The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture provides a forum for these and other federal agencies to discuss their aquaculture activities. It is appealing to envision a highly efficient centralization of all responsibility for marine aquaculture in one agency USDA. However, consideration of the realities of longstanding and traditional jurisdictional responsibilities of other agencies FWS for hatcheries, NOAA for activities that take place in the oceans, the National Science Foundation (NSF) for funding basic research undermine the feasibility of such an approach. On the other hand, more active leadership and more effective coordination of federal activities are necessary to translate the intent of existing national legislation regarding aquaculture into greater commercialization. The following recommenda- tions are aimed at achieving action on behalf of marine aquaculture, and will require executive direction and congressional oversight to ensure that they are implemented. U.S. Department of Agriculture It is recommended that the lead role of USDA be strengthened by cre- ation under its auspices of several concise and comprehensive interagency memoranda of understanding that clarify the mission, role, and responsibil- ities of each agency with respect to aquaculture and specifically marine aquaculture. These MOUs should spell out the mutual understanding nec-

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 171 Congress, through a committee or subcommittee with responsibility for ensuring that executive agencies coordinate their aquaculture-related activ- ities to achieve the maximum efficiency in the use of limited resources and that sufficient funds are appropriated to carry out the legislative mandate. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the committee's conclusions, the following recommendations are made with the aim of fostering the emerging marine aquaculture industry and en- abling it to establish a sound base from which to move forward in the future. Advances in Technology and Engineering- A Marine Aquaculture Initiative The opportunity exists for technology and increased knowledge to provide solutions to many of the environmental, economic, and biological limitations that constrain marine aquaculture's transformation into a significant U.S. in- dustry. However, the opportunity can be realized only if federal policy and action strongly support the development of new technology and the research necessary to provide the biological information for technology design. The committee recommends that Congress make a $12 million national commitment to a strategic R&D initiative to develop marine aquaculture technology and the biological understanding needed to address environmen- tal issues and concerns, and to provide economical systems. Leadership in this initiative should be provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, with coordination by the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA) and implemented under memoranda of understanding (MOUs) among federal agencies involved in marine aquaculture regulation and research. The ini- tiative should include research and development to address the following: · the interdisciplinary development of environmentally sensitive, sustain- able systems that will enable significant commercialization of onshore (on land) and nearshore marine aquaculture without unduly increasing conflict over use of the coastal area; · development of the knowledge base for technologies and candidate species needed to make decisions regarding commercialization of offshore marine aquaculture operations that avoid the environmental impacts of nearshore operations; · creation of (1) technology centers to be used for the above technology development programs and (2) marine aquaculture parks with umbrella per- mits for marine aquaculture for fostering development and deployment of new environmentally sensitive commercial technology; · design and implementation of improved higher-education programs and

170 MARINE AQUACULTURE On the other hand, the consumption of seafood in the United States is increasing at the same time that yields from capture fishing are reaching the limits of sustainable yield and the nation relies increasingly on imports to meet the growing consumer demand for seafood. The opportunity, therefore, exists for U.S. aquaculture to develop the capability to supply this growing demand and for marine aquaculture to make a significant contribution. Although legislation to promote aquaculture was passed in 1980 and again in 1985 (National Aquaculture Act, P.L. 96-362) (National Aquacul- ture Improvement Act, P.L. 99-198), a number of problems have prevented these expressions of policy intent from effectively transforming marine aqua- culture into a dynamic industry. First, except for the establishment of the regional aquaculture centers, no funds were ever appropriated to agencies to implement the provisions of these acts. Second, the needs of marine aqua- culture have tended to be overshadowed by the interests of the freshwater aquaculture industry, which are more closely linked to those of the tradi- tional agriculture community through its geographic focus in inland farming areas. Moreover, marine aquaculture, because of its location in the coastal zone, faces the more complex ocean regulatory regime, as well as widespread public interest and concern about activities that take place in or near the ocean. U.S. marine aquaculture is unlikely to reach its full potential until substantial changes are made in the ways in which federal and state governments support and regulate these activities and until environmental concerns are addressed. The present study investigated the opportunities for improving the out- look for U.S. marine aquaculture and concluded that the issues that con- strain development will need to be specifically addressed through three primary avenues: (1) advances in the scientific, technical, and engineering base that underlies this industry, both to achieve more cost-effective opera- tions and to mitigate environmental problems; (2) changes in federal and state agency roles to provide a regulatory and funding framework that en- courages the industry's growth while ensuring that environmental concerns are addressed; and (3) congressional action to address a number of unre- solved policy issues and to clearly define a national policy. For marine aquaculture to succeed in the United States, a more active and forceful federal role will be needed, one that employs a wider range of incentives for aquaculture development and that centralizes authority (and corresponding resources) to support the promotional role of the lead federal agency, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Achieving the objectives outlined above and discussed in detail in the following recommendations will depend on active oversight of the execu- tive agencies that presently are charged with implementing the national policies expressed in the National Aquaculture Act and the National Aqua- culture Improvement Act. Such oversight, to be effective, must come from

7 Conclusions and Recommendations CONCLUSIONS Marine aquaculture including the farming of marine finfish, shellfish, crustaceans, and seaweed, as well as ocean ranching of anadromous fish is a rapidly growing industry in many parts of the world. In the United States, freshwater aquaculture (primarily the farming of catfish, trout, and crayfish) is an expanding industry; however, marine aquaculture has yet to sustain more than limited economic success. Based on its investigations, the com- mittee concluded that a number of benefits would accrue to the nation from a healthy marine aquaculture industry, including wholesome food to re- place harvests of wild fish from stocks that are declining or at maximum sustainable yield, products for export to improve the nation's balance of trade, enhancement of commercial and recreational fisheries and of fisher- ies that are utilized fully, economic opportunities for rural communities, and new jobs for skilled workers. Advancement of the science and technol- ogy base in marine aquaculture also provides potential benefits to other industries, such as biotechnology and pharmaceuticals. Constraints on the industry have included difficulties and costs of using coastal and ocean space; public concerns about environmental effects of wastes on water quality; conflicts with other users of the coastal zone (e.g., boaters and fishermen); increasing population with concomitant increases in pressure on coastal areas; a limited number of sites with suitable water quality; objections to marine aquaculture installations on aesthetic grounds from coastal property owners; broad ecological issues involving concerns about genetic dilution of wild stocks and transfer of diseases through the escape of cultured animals; and a limited understanding of the biological criteria needed for the design of viable systems. 169

68 MARINE AQUACULTURE SUMMARY Current information and technology transfer efforts for marine aquacul- ture are ad hoc and informal, compared to those for traditional agriculture. They lack dedicated resources and structure. The leading federal agencies with responsibilities for aquaculture extension services have few aquacul- ture specialists and especially few marine aquaculture specialists. Yet the technology in this field is evolving rapidly, and researchers and practi- tioners are, of necessity, involved in informal national and international data and technology transfer. A more coordinated, formalized, and care- fully structured system would overcome some of the problems of dupli- cation of effort and unreliable or unavailable data, and would provide a solid base for the development of advanced technologies necessary to the success of this industry. The enhancement of cooperative extension programs to provide training and the establishment of academic programs aimed specifically at the needs of marine aquaculture are also prerequisites to its advancement. Enhance- ment of national marine aquaculture in the United States could be assisted by emphasis on increased collaboration between the Cooperative Extension Service and the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service. An expansion of the NAIC within the National Agriculture Library—to include more informa- tion on marine aquaculture, using the most modern techniques and real-time data available, and announcing its availability—would increase the aware- ness of regulators, managers, lenders, and investors, and their ability to serve the industry. As a result, investment and regulation would occur in the best possible circumstances. Such a system also would provide re- searchers and research program administrators with the best available infor- mation on which to base research proposals. REFERENCES Chew, K.K., and D. Toba. 1991. Western region aquaculture industry: Situation and outlook report. Western Regional Aquaculture Consortium, University of Washington, Seattle. 23 pp. Hanfman, D.T., S. Tibbitt, and C. Watts. 1989. The potentials of aquaculture: An overview and bibliography. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bibliographies and Literature of Agriculture No. 90. Washington, D.C. Scrivani, P. 1990. Presentation to the committee. Davis, Calif., March 19. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1988. Aquaculture Situation and Outlook Report. Economic Research Service. AQUA 1. Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1990. Outlook for U.S. Agricultural Exports. Foreign Agriculture Service, Economic Research Service, Washington, D.C.

INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, AND ED UCATION 167 on food imports, including aquaculture products) to support research that would reduce U.S. dependency on imported seafood. Institution of a peer re- view process similar to the National Science Foundation's competition for basic research grants would ensure a high level of quality for research programs conducted at the centers. The following characteristics would be appropriate for any national centers for marine aquaculture technology: · centers at three or more locations to provide for a range of climatic and ecological conditions (e.g., Atlantic, Pacific, Gulf); · programs focused on building on existing technology in a timely manner; · facilities for a wide range of research areas (e.g., biological investiga- tions, marine structures, marine materials, sensing and monitoring equip- ment, water reuse technologies, processing methods, quality enhancement; and tagging and marking systems). Biological laboratories should comple- ment (not duplicate) existing research institutions; · a strong staff of professionals from various disciplines including biolo- gists, engineers, economists, food scientists, institutional/policy specialists, and marketing/business specialists; · an advisory board that includes strong representation from commercial aquaculture; · direct electronic information exchange and interaction with other re- search programs at universities and state or federal agencies; and · modern facilities designed for maximum flexibility in responding to new research directions, including capability to undertake remote research with portable equipment. Such a program would contribute to the advancement of marine aqua- culture with appropriate attention to economic, institutional, and environ- mental concerns by assembling an interdisciplinary staff, directing their activities into areas of specific interest to commercial aquaculturists, and providing facilities for research and extension activities. Advancement would be stimulated by the interdisciplinary, targeted research and the associated technology transfer. The technology centers could be complemented by research parks that would provide the private sector with a location for conducting research and development for commercialization, Scrivani (1990) suggested the concept of state aquaculture parks where entrepreneurs could lease space, seawater, and infrastructure and be covered by an umbrella permit. Such parks would foster commercial operations, but even more importantly, would foster commercialization (i.e., parks could play an important role in technology transfer). A planned linkage between the technology centers and such aqua- culture parks would facilitate the deployment of new technology.

66 MARINE AQUACULTURE public, people involved in the industry, and regulators and agency personnel. At the kindergarten through twelfth grade level, educational activities could be focused on marine systems in general. Audiences could be ad- dressed through 4-H, designating an Ocean Week, and similar programs. At the undergraduate level, increased educational opportunities in biological systems engineering would serve to round out one of the important areas of training that is currently inadequate. Expanded graduate programs focused on areas of marine aquaculture in engineering, veterinary medicine, eco- nomics, and policy/regulatory programs would provide professionals who could apply their expertise toward marine aquaculture. In addition, foreign exchange programs for graduate students and research scientists would both serve as training and educational programs and increase the opportunities for technology transfer and exchange. Overall awareness of the industry itself, some of its unique problems, and the need for collaborative efforts among diverse professions can be improved through the promotion of linkages among professional organiza- tions, government agencies, and interest groups, such as the NMFS, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), recreational and commercial fisher- men, environmental groups, consumer groups, agricultural sectors, the Ameri- can Society of Agricultural Engineers, the American Fisheries Society, and the World Aquaculture Society. A broader group of people needs to be reached with information regarding the marine aquaculture industry in order to raise the awareness of others and ensure information exchange. MARINE AQUACULTURE TECHNOLOGY CENTERS Marine aquaculture would benefit from the establishment of marine aqua- culture technology centers to serve as facilities where multidisciplinary teams would come together to carry out focused development, advancement, and technology transfer of marine aquaculture systems. Such centers would complement the biological research laboratories in which the basic biologi- cal understanding and design criteria must originate. Such centers would not require new facilities at new sites, but the reprogramming and redevel- opment of existing facilities and research institutions or the use of existing USDA, NMFS, or FWS facilities. Candidate facilities that could be transformed into regional marine aqua- culture technology centers include state and federal centers that can be found in all regions of the country that have an interest in coastal and marine matters, so that geographic and species considerations could be eas- ily encompassed. These centers could be designated without any addi- tional funding, although consideration might be given to allocation of an appropriate portion of the Saltonstall-Kennedy funds (raised from duties

INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, AND EDUCATION 165 be exchanged and transferred to enable faster growth of the world marine aquaculture industry. The means for international technology transfer and exchange of scientists is not well organized. A program to encourage U.S. scientists' visits abroad could help to bridge the gap in international tech- nology transfer. Because marine aquaculture production operates in a glo- bal market, care must be taken to emphasize the benefits to the world marine aquaculture industry. New initiatives could also be taken to develop additional foreign exchange programs. EDUCATION The availability of formal education specific to marine aquaculture is limited, so the field draws practitioners from the general areas of science and engineering. Additional recruiting efforts may be necessary to increase the number of graduate students entering these programs who intend to use their skills in the United States if a strong base of talent is to be available for the development of marine aquaculture. In addition to higher enrollments, some form of cross-training or inter- disciplinary studies needs to be incorporated in the training and education programs of aquaculturists. Aquaculture is a profession that requires exper- tise in a broad number of subject areas, such as biology, engineering, eco- nomics, regulation, administration, business, trade, and marketing. In de- signing cross-disciplinary programs, however, care must be taken to ensure that the end result is not a half-trained engineer or a half-trained biologist. The goal is to train an engineer, for example, who has some rudimentary knowledge of the relevant biological concepts and terminology, and is capable of formulating appropriate questions to ask a biologist. The same concept would apply to the biologist, economist, or social scientist special- . , . Zing In aquaculture. A number of universities and other public organizations offer short or continuing education courses in marine aquaculture. In addition, private organizations conduct short courses in marine aquaculture-related topics. The Cooperative Extension Service and the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service conduct workshops and seminars for private aquaculturists and agency personnel. Annual trade shows and professional meetings also pro- vide educational opportunities in specific areas. The ongoing United States- Japan cooperative education exchange program is effective in providing technology transfer and exchange between these two countries, and could serve as a model for exchanges with other countries. Public information on and awareness of aquaculture are limited and, in some cases, consist primarily of information about widely publicized negative environmental effects. A reasonable goal for public education efforts is to raise the level of awareness about aquaculture of the general

64 MARINE AQUACULTURE unsatisfactory. Modifications "on-site" to improve the technology depend on extended relationships and contacts between those transferring and those receiving the technology. Such situations require continuing relationships among extension personnel, researchers, and the individuals, companies, or agencies that apply their findings. The implications of this pattern for the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Ser- vice and Cooperative Extension are that arrangements will be required for prolonged contact among the parties. This situation is in contrast to the information exchange function that deals with large numbers of users for brief periods (i.e., meetings, short courses). An improved technology trans- fer system for marine aquaculture will require an organizational structure and resources that allow extended relationships with users and, consequently, will require the allocation of more resources to this process than at present. The adoption of technology by industry users often results in modifica- tion or adaptations of the technology. Thus, the process of technology transfer may lead to technology modifications that are proprietary. As a result, a close, confidential relationship is needed among all parties. Rec- ognition of this potential development is necessary prior to technology transfer agreements. University offices of technology transfer have experi- ence with the proprietary aspects of improvements. Specific attention to proprietary rights is important because of the complexities and the basic role of technology transfer in a changing industry. The anticipated benefi- cial feedback of research needs to campuses when technology is transferred may not occur otherwise. A mechanism of providing statewide specialists for facilitating informa- tion and technology transfer could be expanded upon and offered within some concentration of the Sea Grant Program and the Cooperative Exten- sion Service. Even though there are some pilot-scale demonstration proj- ects around the United States, substantial benefits can be obtained from developing marine aquaculture field stations and demonstration of semi- commercial-scale production. Semicommercial production demonstration facilities would bridge the present gap between the small-scale, purely ap- plied research technology or pilot-scale production and the commercial production technology. Currently, the USDA Regional Aquaculture Centers are working to im- prove the exchange and integration of the results of collaborative applied research among university, extension, and industry researchers and users. These efforts have met with varying degrees of success in various centers. New methods of integration would serve to increase the rate of development of marine aquaculture in the United States by minimizing unnecessary duplication of efforts. A large number of innovations in marine aquaculture are developed by other countries. Current state-of-the-art technology around the world could

INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, AND EDUCATION 163 production as provided by . . . [industry] representatives." They then ex- plain that the statistics represent averages of several estimates and that the probability exists for errors. The most complete information available on aquaculture production and value for the western region is, it seems, preliminary at best. A number of actions could improve the overall task of information ex- change. The two exchange components are dissemination of research re- sults and data distribution. The dissemination component is hindered by the relatively small number of individuals with an assigned marine aquaculture extension responsibility. The agents need opportunities to receive profes- sional improvement training and to have access to accurate information retrieval systems. Specialists, similarly, need these opportunities to be better prepared, with particular emphasis on international developments and formal interaction with researchers. The second component of the information exchange process, data distri- bution, begins with the understanding that research and trade developments yield data. A national network for electronic collection and transfer of data, such as that employed for the national crop reporting system, would vastly improve data collection. In addition, the designation of a state specialist to provide leadership and be a point of contact for information, followed later by county agents when the industry develops (i.e., to lead, organize, and follow with numbers), would be effective in gathering state-level informa- tion. This system could be patterned after the successful process used for agricultural data collection and transfer (USDA, 19901. Specific mechanisms can be applied to attain a system that will facilitate the free flow of information and the transfer of technology generated na- tionwide, specifically in the areas identified above. Increased and improved (i.e., accurate) data collection to enhance the status of marine aquaculture is basic to all aspects of marine aquaculture development (Hanfman et al., 19891. Existing data collection mechanisms (i.e., the USDA crop and fish- eries reporting services) could provide industry data on production, employment, gear, economics, and trade, for example. The transfer of infor- mation data, unpublished reports, and literature from foreign countries to the United States could be accomplished through use of the NAIC as well as through U.S. scientists' visits abroad. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER Because the success of marine aquaculture depends on technology devel- opment, both nationally and internationally, frequent needs arise to acquire and/or transfer new technology rapidly to fulfill investment plans and re- main competitive. These economic pressures create incentives to transfer technology prematurely, which often results in outcomes that are initially

162 MARINE AQUACULTURE USDA National Agriculture Library, has the potential to serve as the clearinghouse for information and to become a focal point for information transfer. However, the withdrawal of base-level funding support for the NAIC has severely limited its capability to retrieve and disseminate infor- mation. The lack of a funded central information retrieval system affects the ability of professionals responsible for information exchange to do the best possible job. Extension personnel with limited marine aquaculture training would benefit from access to such a system. Availability of an international aquaculture reference and data network would be particularly beneficial. Current methods of data collection and statistics from national and inter- national sources are inadequate in terms of both quantity and quality. The only national data source for aquaculture, Aquaculture Situation and Out- look Reports by USDA, covers freshwater species fairly accurately but does not include many of the cultured marine species. Data for the production of new and evolving species are often not reported. In addition, a significant proportion of cultured production may be marketed in such a way that it is not reported (USDA, 1988~. The International Fisheries Office of the National Marine Fisheries Ser- vice (NMFS) occasionally reports statistics and developments in marine aquaculture for selected countries. These irregularly produced country analyses are useful for near-term outlook purposes. They are an information source of increasing value as the United States strives to meet international compe- tition. Information transfer would be more complete if a larger number of countries were reviewed each year. Two recent publications attempt to present data on aquaculture produc- tion and value for all freshwater and marine aquaculture species. The first, The Potentials of Aquaculture: An Overview and Bibliography (Hanfman et al., 1989), put out by the National Aquaculture Information Center, states that accurate data on current U.S. production of salmon are unavailable. In addition, statistics on the status of worldwide aquaculture are based on data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). As of early 1991, the most current statistics used in FAO publications were from 1987 or, in some cases, part of 1988. The dramatic expansion of marine aquaculture production in the past three years renders these statistics inad- equate for assessing the status of current production. The most accurate current world production statistics must be culled from trade journals, an approach that is time consuming and, in some cases, incomplete. A second source of aquaculture statistics and one that offers the most complete data set on the western region of the United States was compiled by the Western Regional Aquaculture Consortium (Chew and Toba, 1991) in cooperation with the USDA. The authors offer caveats on their statistics as follows: "The report is . . . a compilation of estimates in aquaculture

INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, AND ED UCATI ON 161 aspects of industry operations as well. A structured system would stimulate more rapid advances in all aspects of marine aquaculture systems through better dissemination of research results. INFORMATION EXCHANGE Currently, information is communicated through a number of processes and institutions with varying degrees of success. The vast majority of in- formation transfer within the marine aquaculture community occurs through trade journals, trade shows, professional journals, scientific meetings, and extension programs. Private consultants are involved in information trans- fer, but they are limited, as a rule, by the client-professional relationship. Consultants are participants in trade show programs however and, because of their technical training, at professional society meetings as well. As consultants, they frequently present general information, comment on tech- nology adaptability, and convey general trends as opposed to disclosing . . . . specific project information. Sea Grant Program extension personnel also conduct information ex- change activities in marine aquaculture, but they are responsible for the entire spectrum of marine activities. This limits the commitment of time and the relative continuity with which they can address marine aquaculture concerns. Sea Grant extension personnel are assigned geographically (by county or region) and focus on local information transfer and education opportunities. Their technical support system includes campus-based spe- cialists in the fields of aquaculture, biology, engineering, law, economics, and others. Specialists, although well educated, frequently do not have the option of working exclusively on a single aspect of marine resource use. Many are specialists in a technical discipline and have limited training or experience specific to marine aquaculture. The Regional Aquaculture Centers established in 1985 under the aus- pices of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) are responsible for both the generation and the dissemination of information. Research projects are funded at public research institutions, and results are exchanged via Cooperative Extension (USDA) and Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) (NOAA) extension pro- grams. The communication of research results and of information and tech- nology needs between scientists and commercial practitioners is a vital role of these extension services. The opportunity exists for increased in- volvement of marine aquaculture agents/advisors and specialists from the USDA Regional Aquaculture Centers to adequately provide for the feed- back aspect of effective information exchange, as well as to provide the information delivery system. The National Aquaculture Information Center (NAIC), affiliated with the

160 MARINE AQUACULTURE courses, demonstration or pilot projects, and the systems of higher educa- tion. Private consultants working with clients are constantly pushing at the edge of technology to make operations more cost-effective and profitable. However, consultants often are limited in the amount of technology they can transfer from project to project by the proprietary nature of their work. Short courses conducted by university, extension, and private companies are frequently an effective means of technology transfer. Demonstration projects, such as those at the Waddell Mariculture Center, the Oceanic In- stitute, the Texas A&M and University of Texas Marine Science Institute, Louisiana State University, and the University of Washington, provide valu- able technology transfer points when the potential aquaculture entrepreneur is aware of their existence. In addition to information exchange and technology transfer to practitio- ners, two areas of education that need attention in relation to marine aqua- culture are (1) increasing public awareness of aquaculture and (2) training of specialists. Very little, if any, general knowledge of marine biology or aquaculture is transmitted in kindergarten through twelfth grade. In fact, awareness of marine systems in general, at those levels, is rarely stressed. At the undergraduate level, current training for a career in aquaculture is primarily through the selection of technical electives; rarely, through an option in animal science or biology; or through two- and four-year technical programs. Graduates from these programs, however, often lack sufficient background in more multidisciplinary training that includes engineering, economics, property/environmental law, and other subjects related to the marine environment that would enable them to work independently without additional training. The majority of graduate programs include specialties such as fisheries or aquaculture within another discipline (e.g., marine biology/ science, animal science, or engineering). In these programs, as at the under- graduate level, it is difficult to obtain specific training in marine aquaculture. Continuing education can provide both training for specialists in areas other than those involved in their usual work activities and disseminate information about new techniques or technologies to practitioners. Private and public short courses or continuing education courses, workshops and seminars, annual trade association and professional meetings, and educa- tional exchange programs are the primary techniques used. To improve the present situation of information exchange, technology transfer, and education, fundamental prerequisites for a formal system of expert information and technology need to be established. The prerequi- sites include a structured system for the exchange of basic information and the transfer of technology, formal educational programs, support of continu- ing education and training for specialists, and public education. The cre- ation of these structures and mechanisms would improve the practice of marine aquaculture and would benefit the economics and marketing

INFORMATION EXCHANGE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, AND EDUCATION 159 -_ r .. . . . ^~ ~_- me_ Id' - ~~,i~~ ~ T~ _, , - ~ _ ~ ~ ~ __ fit _ ED '__ 1 :! ~r7~ Bll4~ —a __ ~. FEZ . ,. 2_ r - - . .~ A_ Cam _ as - = Aerial view of the James M. Waddell, Jr., Marine Research and Development Center in Bluffton, South Carolina. Support of aquaculture is provided by universities involved with land grant or sea grant programs. Unlike agriculture, however, the land grant system's linkage of campus research, experimental farms, and organization for information and technology transfer has not been duplicated in the area of marine aquaculture. Specifically appropriated funds for the National Sea Grant College Program partially address extension, but establishment of experimental "farms" and extension positions specifically in marine aqua- culture are limited and hamper the effort to transfer the agricultural model to the aquatic area. At the present time, the processes for information exchange, technology transfer, and education in the marine aquaculture field are to a large degree ad hoc and informal. A more structured system is needed to facilitate the flow of information and the transfer of new technol- ogy and to provide more formal training. Information may be communi- cated verbally or in written form as raw data, printed material, or personal consultation. The important point is that information is of use to a field of endeavor only if it is shared. The transfer of technology is a process that requires more extended effort than information exchange, usually involving animals or facilities. Tech- nology transfer is generally accomplished through a practitioner who is a specialist and frequently occurs through private consultations, short

6 Information Exchange, Technology Transfer, and Education OVERVIEW The development model for an agricultural product typically follows a logical and time-proven sequence. Information is developed, tested in field conditions, monitored by agencies, extended to users, and then transferred to the private sector to be incorporated into commercial activities. Inves- tors and lending institutions ultimately rely on a support system to make the logical sequence yield benefits. The Morrill Act of 1862 provides the foundation of the U.S. agricultural support system through the establish- ment of the land grant university system of higher education. A wide spec- trum of technical disciplines is represented at each land grant campus. The agricultural support system includes an integrated research, teaching, and extension effort involving faculty researchers, extension personnel, and the private sector. Research and teaching in each state occur at campus locations and nu- merous experimental stations. Research results are extended to agricultural producers and the agricultural business infrastructure by a network of Coop- erative Extension Service (CES) centers that includes on-campus specialists, as well as staff located in every county. CES technical training techniques include short courses and workshops, which together with communi- cation on an individual basis, have proved to be effective means of research interpretation and technology transfer. Publications and on-site demonstra- tions at cooperating grower farms add to the process of continuing educa- tion. Extension programs provide technical assistance on systems design, production, business planning, management, and marketing. 158

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