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OCR for page 5
11
The Disinfection of
Drinking Water
The goal of disinfection of public water supplies is the elimination of the
pathogens that are responsible for waterborne diseases. The transmission
of diseases such as typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, cholera, salmonello-
sis, and shigellosis can be controlled with treatments that substantially
reduce the total number of viable microorganisms in the water.
While the concentration of organisms in drinking water after elective
disinfection may be exceedingly small, sterilization (i.e., killing all the
microbes present) is not attempted. Sterilization is not only impractical,
it cannot be maintained in the distribution system. Assessment of the
reduction in microbes that is sufficient to protect against the transmis-
sion of pathogens in water is discussed below.
Chlorination is the most widely used method for disinfecting water
supplies in the United States. The near universal adoption of this method
can be attributed to its convenience and to its highly satisfactory
performance as a disinfectant, which has been established by decades of
use. It has been so successful that freedom from epidemics of waterborne
diseases is now virtually taken for granted. As stated in Drinking Water
and Health (National Academy of Sciences, 1977), "chlorination is the
standard of disinfection against which others are compared."
However, the discovery that chlorination can result in the formation of
trihalomethanes (THM's) and other halogenated hydrocarbons has
prompted the reexamination of available disinfection methodology to
determine alternative agents or procedures (Morris, 1975~.
5
OCR for page 6
6 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
The method of choice for disinfecting water for human consumption
depends on a variety of factors (Symons et al., 1977~. These include:
O its efficacy against waterborne pathogens (bacteria, viruses, proto-
zoa, and helminths);
· the accuracy with which the process can be monitored and
controlled;
· its ability to produce a residual that provides an added measure of
protection against possible posttreatment contamination resulting from
faults in the distribution system;
· the aesthetic quality of the treated water; and
· the availability of the technology for the adoption of the method on
the scale that is required for public water supplies.
economic factors will also play a part in the final decision; however,
this study is confined to a discussion of the five factors listed above as
they apply to various disinfectants.
The propensity of various disinfection methods to produce by-prod-
ucts having effects on health (other than those relating to the control of
infectious diseases) and the possibility of eliminating or avoiding these
undesirable by-products are also important factors to be weighed when
making the final decisions about overall suitability of methods to
disinfect drinking water. The subcommittee has not attempted to deal
with these problems since the chemistry of disinfectants in water and the
toxicology of expected by-products have been studied by other subcom-
mittees of the Safe Drinking Water Committee, whose reports appear in
Chapter III of this volume (Chemistry) and Chapter IV (Toxicity) of
Drinking Water and Health, Vol. 3.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
The general considerations noted in the immediately following material
should be borne in mind when considering each method of disinfection.
Available information on the obvious major candidates for drinking
water disinfection chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, iodine, and bro-
mine—is then evaluated for each method individually in the following
sections. Other less obvious possibilities are also examined to see if they
have been overlooked unjustly in previous studies or if it might be
profitable to conduct further experimentation on them. Disinfection by
chloramines is dealt with in parallel with that effected by chlorine
because of the close relationship the former has to chlorine disinfection
OCR for page 7
The Disinfection of Drinking Water 7
under conditions that might normally be encountered in drinking water
treatment.
The evaluations in this report are not exhaustive literature reviews but,
rather, are selections of the studies that, in the judgment of the
committee, provide the most accurate and relevant information on the
biocidal activities of each method of disinfection. The analytical
methods that are described in this report are those that are most likely to
be used by persons involved in disinfection research or water treatment.
A review of all existing analytical methods, some of which may be more
sophisticated than those described below, would be impractical within
the constraints of time and space available and is not within the scope of
this document.
After the methods of disinfection are examined individually, their
major characteristics and biocidal efficacy are compared by means of
summary tables and c . t (concentration, in milligrams per liter, times
contact time, in minutes) values required for similar inactivations under
identical conditions. The conclusions of the study are then recorded on
the basis of this evidence.
GENERAL ASPECTS OF DISINFECTION
In any comparison of disinfection methods, certain considerations
should be discussed at the outset since they are relevant to most, if not
all, methods. The quality of the raw water (i.e., its content of solids and
material that will react with the disinfectant), treatment of the water
prior to disinfection, and the manner in which the disinfectant is applied
to the water will directly affect the efficacy of all disinfectants. Equally
applicable to all methods are appropriate standards for verifying the
adequacy of disinfection, differences in response to disinfectants between
organisms that were obtained directly from the field and those that have
been acclimated to laboratory culture, and the maintenance of potability
from treatment plant to the consumer's tap. The use of chlorination as
presented in examples in the following pages does not imply that it is
necessarily the method of choice. Rather, this method has been studied
more thoroughly than other methods.
Raw Water Quality
In addition to potential pathogens, raw water may contain contaminants
that may interfere with the disinfection process or may be undesirable in
OCR for page 8
8 DRINKING WATER AND H"LTH
the finished product. These contaminants include inorganic and organic
molecules, particulates, and other organisms, e.g., invertebrates. Varia-
tions among these contaminants arise from differences in regional
geochemistry and between ground- and surface-water sources.
DISINFECTANT DEMAND
.
Many inorganic and organic molecules that occur in raw water exert a
"demand," i.e., a capacity to react with and consume the disinfectant.
Therefore, higher "demand" waters require a greater dose to achieve a
specific concentration of the active species of disinfectant. This demand
must be satisfied to ensure adequate biocidal treatment.
Ferrous ions, nitrites, hydrogen sulfide, and various organic molecules
exert a demand for oxidizing disinfectants such as chlorine. The bulb of
the nonparticulate organic material in raw water occurs as naturally
derived humic substances, i.e., humic, fulvic, and hymatomelanic acids,
which contribute to color in water. The structure of these molecules is
not yet fully understood. However, they are known to be polymeric and
to contain aromatic rings and carboxyl, phenolic, alcoholic hydroxyl,
and methoxyl functional groups. Humic substances, when reacting with
and consuming applied chlorine, produce chloroform (CHC13) and other
THM's. Water, particularly surface waters, may also contain synthetic
organic molecules whose demand for disinfectant will be determined by
their structure. Ammonia and amines in raw water will react with
chlorine to yield chloramines that do have some biocidal activity, unlike
most products of these side reactions. If chlorination progresses to the
breakpoint, i.e., to a free-chlorine residual, these chloramines will be
oxidized causing more added chlorine to be consumed before a specific
free-chlorine level is achieved. This phenomenon is discussed more fully
below.
The nature of the demand reactions varies with the composition of the
water and the disinfectant. Removal of the demand substances leaves a
water with a lower requirement for a disinfectant to achieve an
equivalent degree of protection against transmission of a waterborne
disease.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
Various treatments applied to raw water to remedy undesirable charac-
teristics, e.g., color, taste, odor, or turbidity, may affect the ultimate
microbiological quality of the finished water. Microorganisms may be
physically removed or the disinfectant demand of the water altered.
Presedimentation to remove suspended matter, coagulation with alum
OCR for page 9
The Disinfection of Drinking Water 9
or other agents, and filtration reduce the organic material in the raw
water and, thus, the disinfectant demand. Removal of ferrous iron
similarly reduces the demand for oxidizing disinfectants as will aeration,
which eliminates hydrogen sulfide. Prechlorination to a free chlorine
residual is practiced early in the treatment sequence as one method to
alter taste- and odor-producing compounds, to suppress growth of
organisms in the treatment plant, to remove iron and manganese, and to
reduce the interference of organic compounds in the coagulation process.
The necessity for these treatments or others is determined by the
characteristics of the raw water. The selection of one of the various
methods to achieve a particular result will be based upon cost-
e~ectiveness in the particular situation. When chlorination is used, the
application or point of application in the treatment sequence of some of
the above-mentioned procedures can affect the undesirable THM
content of the finished water.
Reduction of precursors in raw water by coagulation and settling prior
to chlorination reduces final THM production (Hoehn et al., 1977;
Stevens et al., 19751. The Louisville Water Company reduced THM
concentrations leaving the plant by 40~50% by shifting the point of
chlorination from the presedimentation basin to the coagulation basin
(Hubbs et al., 19771. The available information on these variations is
limited, and a universally applicable procedure cannot be recommended
in view of the diverse treatments required for different raw waters.
Particulates and Aggregates
To inactivate organisms in water, the active chemical species must be
able to reach the reactive site within the organism or on its surface.
Inactivation will not result if this cannot occur. Microorganisms may
acquire physical protection in water as a result of their being adsorbed to
the enormous surfaces provided by clays, silt, and organic matter or to
the surfaces of solids created during water treatment, e.g., aluminum or
ferric hydrated oxides, calcium carbonate, and magnesium hydroxide.
Viruses, bacteria, and protozoan cysts may be adsorbed to these
surfaces. Such particles, with the adsorbed microorganisms, may
aggregate to form clumps, affording additional protection. Organisms
themselves may also aggregate or clump together so that organisms that
are on the interior of the clump are shielded from the disinfectant and
are not inactivated. Organisms may also be physically embedded within
particles of fecal material, within larger organisms such as nematodes, or,
in the case of viruses, within human body cells that have been discharged
in fecal material.
To disinfect water adequately, the water must have been pretreated,
OCR for page 10
lo DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
when necessary, to reduce the concentration of solid materials to an
acceptably low level. The primary drinking water turbidity standard of 1
nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) is an attempt to assure that the
concentration of particulates is compatible with current disinfection
techniques. Where it is possible to obtain lower turbidities, this is
desirable.
Disinfection studies in which the complications of adsorbed organ-
isms, aggregation, or embedment were thought to occur were excluded
from this study. The conclusions in this report should not be extrapolat-
ed to such situations as the disinfection of turbid or colored waters.
The Importance of Residuals
Water supplies are disinfected through the addition or dosage of a
chemical or physical agent. With a chemical agent, such as a halogen, a
given dosage should theoretically impart a predetermined concentration
(residual) of the active agent in the water. From a practical point of view,
most natural waters exert a "demand" for the disinfectant, as discussed
above, so that the residual in the water is less than the calculated amount
based on the dosage. The decrease in residual, which is caused by the
demand, is rapid in most cases, but it may be prolonged until the
residual eventually disappears. In addition, the chemical agent may
decompose spontaneously, thereby yielding substances having little or
no disinfection ability and exerting no measurable residual. For example,
ozone not only reacts with substances in water that exert a demand, but
it also decomposes rapidly. To achieve microbial inactivation with a
chemical agent, a residual must be present for a specific time. Thus, the
nature and level of the residual, together with time of exposure, are
important in achieving disinfection or microbial inactivation. Because
the nature of the dosage-residual relationship for natural waters has not
been and possibly cannot be reliably defined, the efficacy of disinfection
with a chemical agent must be based on a residual concentration/time-
of-exposure relationship.
Residual measurements are important and useful in controlling the
disinfection process. By knowing the residual-time relationship that is
required to inactivate pathogenic or infectious agents, one can adjust the
dosage of the disinfecting agent to achieve the residual that is required
for effective disinfection with a given contact time. Thus, the
electiveness of the disinfection process can be controlled and/or judged
by monitoring or measuring the residual.
Following disinfection of a water supply at a treatment plant, the
water is distributed to the consumers. A persistent residual is important
OCR for page 11
The Disinfection of Drinking Water 11
for continued protection of the water supply against subsequent
contamination in the distribution system. Accidental or mechanical
failures in the distribution system may result in the introduction of
infectious agents into the water supply. In the presence of a residual,
disinfection will continue and, as a result, offer continued protection to
the users. Physical agents such as radiation may provide elective
disinfection during application, but they do not impart any persistent
residual to the water.
The dosage of a chemical agent that is used to eject microbial
inactivation should not be so great that it imparts a health hazard to the
water consumer. From another point of view, the aesthetic quality of the
finished water should not be impaired by the dosage of the chemical
agent or the residual that is required for effective disinfection. These
qualities might include discoloration of water from potassium permanga-
nate (KMnO4) or iodine or problems of taste and odor from excessive
chlorine.
Application of the Disinfectant
Optimum inactivation occurs when the disinfectant is distributed
uniformly throughout the water. To disperse the chemical disinfectant
when it is added to the water, it must be mixed electively to assure that
all of the water, however small the volume, receives its proportionate
share of the chemical. Additions of a disinfectant at points in a flowing
water stream, e.g., from submerged pipes, is seldom adequate to assure
uniform concentration. In such cases, mechanical mixing devices are
needed to disperse the disinfectant throughout the water. Disinfection by
radiation treatment also requires good mixing to bring all of the water
within the effective radiation distance.
Microbiological Considerationsi
Comparison of the biocidal efficacy of disinfectants is complicated by
the need to control many variables, a need not realized in some early
studies. Halogens in particular are significantly affected by the composi-
tion of the test menstruum and its pH, temperature, and halogen
demand. For very low concentrations of halogen to be present over a
testing period, halogen demand must be carefully eliminated. Different
disinfectants may have different biocidal potential. In earlier work,
Nomenclature in this report follows that recommended in the Eighth Edition of Bergey's
Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (Buchanan and Gibbons, 1974). Thus, the name of an
organism mentioned in the text may not be that used by the author of the work cited.
OCR for page 12
12 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
analytical difficulties may have precluded defining exactly the species
present, but new techniques allow the species to be defined for most
disinfectants. Information on the species of disinfectant actually in the-
test system should be included in future reports on disinfection studies.
Investigators studying efficacy have usually adopted one of two
extremes. Some have conducted carefully designed laboratory experi-
ments with controls for as many variables as possible. Certain of these
investigators have reduced the temperature to slow the inactivation
reactions. Although these experiments yield good basic information and
can be used to determine which variables are important, they often have
little quantitative relationship to field situations. The other extreme, a
field study or reconstruction of field conditions, is difficult to control.
Moreover, their results are often not repeatable.
In addition to the variables noted above, prereaction of chemicals in
the test system, the culture history of the organism being used, and the
"cleanup" procedures applied to it may also affect the observed results.
Despite these problems, there have been some attempts to standardize
efficacy testing.
MODEL SYSTEMS AND INDICATOR ORGANISMS
A major factor that influences the evaluation of the efficacy of a
particular disinfectant is the test microorganism. There is a wide
variation in susceptibility, not only among bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa (cyst stage), but also among genera, species, and strains of the
microorganism. It is impractical to obtain information on the inactiva-
tion by each disinfectant for each species and strain of pathogenic
microorganism of importance in water. In addition, interpretation of the
data would be confounded by the condition and source of the test
microorganism (e.g., the degree of aggregation and whether the organ-
isms were "naturally occurring" or laboratory preparations), the pres-
ence of solids and Articulates, and the presence of materials that react
with and consume the disinfectant.
The overwhelming majority of the literature on water disinfection
concerns the inactivation of model microorganisms rather than the
pathogens. These disinfectant model microorganisms have generally
been nonpathogenic microorganisms that are as similar as possible to the
pathogen and behave in a similar manner when exposed to the
disinfectant. The disinfectant model systems are simpler, less fastidious,
technically more workable systems that provide a way to obtain basic
information concerning fundamental parameters and reactions. The
OCR for page 13
The Disinfection of Drinking Water 13
information gained with the model systems can then be used to design
key experiments in the more difficult systems. The disinfection model
microorganism should be clearly distinguished from the indicator
organism. The indicator microorganism, as defined in Drinking Water
and Health (National Academy of Sciences, 1977), is a "microorganism
whose presence is evidence that pollution (associated with fecal
contamination from man or other warm-blooded animals) has oc-
curred." Following are criteria for the indicator microorganism (Fair and
Geyer, 19541:
The indicator should always be present when fecal material is
present and absent in clean, uncontaminated water.
2. The indicator should die away in the natural aquatic environment
and respond to treatment processes in a manner that is similar to that of
the pathogens of interest.
3. The indicator should be more numerous than the pathogens.
4. The indicator should be easy to isolate, identify, and enumerate.
Only a restrictive application of the second criterion is necessary for a
disinfection model. The response of the test microorganism to the
disinfectant must be similar to that of the pathogen that it is intended to
simulate. The disinfection model is not meant to function as an indicator
microorganism.
During the latter part of the nineteenth century, investigators
recognized the presence of a group of bacteria that occured in large
numbers in feces and wastewater. The most significant member of this
group (currently called the coliform group) is Escherichia colt. Since the
late nineteenth century, this colifo~n~ group has served as an indicator of
the degree of fecal contamination of water, and E. cold has been used
routinely as a disinfection model for enteric pathogens. Butterfield and
co-workers (Butterfield and Wattie, 1946; Butterfield et al., 1943; Wattle
and Butterfield, 1944) provided information on the inactivation of E. cold
and other enteric bacterial pathogens with chlorine and chloramines. At
pH values above 8.5, all strains of E. cold were more resistant to free
chlorine than were Salmonella typhi strains. At pH values of 6.5 and 7.0,
strains of S. typhi were more resistant. Only slight differences between
the two genera were found when chloramines were used as the
disinfectant. The bactericidal activity of chloramine was noticably less
than that of free chlorine.
Bacteria of the colifo~ group, especially E. coli, have proved useful as
an indicator and disinfection model for enteric bacterial pathogens but
OCR for page 14
14 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
1
are poor indicators and disinfection models for nonbacterial pathogens.
E. cold has been observed to be markedly more susceptible to chlorine
than certain enteric viruses and cysts of pathogenic protozoa (Dahling et
al., 1972; Kruse, 1969~.
The bacterial viruses of E. cold have received increased attention as
possible disinfection models and indicators of enteric viruses in water
and wastewater. At present, the data to justify the bacterial viruses as
indicators for enteric viruses are limited and inconsistent. However,
there is a growing body of knowledge on the utilization of bacterial
viruses as disinfection models.
Hsu (1964) and Hsu et al. (1966) first reported the use of the f2 virus as
a model for disinfection studies with iodine. They showed that
inactivation of both the f2 virus and poliovirus 1 were inhibited by
increasing concentrations of iodide ion and that both f2 RNA and
poliovirus 1 RNA were resistant to iodination.
Dahling et al. (1972) compared the inactivation of two enteric viruses
(poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus A9), two DNA phages (I 2 and T5), two
RNA phages (f2 and MS2), and E. cold ATCC 11229 under demand-free
conditions with free chlorine at pH 6.0. They found enteric viruses to be
most resistant to free chlorine followed by RNA phages, E. colt, and the
T phages.
Shah and McCamish (1972) compared the resistance of poliovirus 1
and the-coliphages f2 and T2 to 4 mg/liter combined residual chlorine.
The f2 virus was shown to be more resistant to this form of chlorine than
poliovirus 1 and T2 coliphage.
Cramer et al. (1976) compared the inactivation of poliovirus 3 (Leon)
and f2 with chlorine and iodine in buffered wastewater. Both viruses
were treated together in the same reaction flask, thereby eliminating any
inherent differences due to virus preparations and replicate systems. In
wastewater effluent at phi 6.0 and 10.0 with a 30 mg/liter dosage of
halogen under prereacted Halogen added to wastewater, allowed to
react, viruses added at zero time) and dynamic (viruses added to
wastewater, halogen added at zero time) conditions, f2 was, in each case,
at least as or more resistant to chlorine and iodine than poliovirus 1. The
f2 virus appears to be more sensitive to free chlorine but more resistant
to combined chlorine than poliovirus 1 is.
Neefe et al. (1945) observed that the agent of infectious hepatitis was
inactivated by breakpoint chlorination (free chlorine) but not comnletelv
inactivated by combined chlorine.
Engelbrecht et al. (1975) reported that the use of a yeast (Candida
parapsilosis) and two acid-fast bacteria (Mycobacterium fortuitum and
--I- ~
OCR for page 15
The Disinfection of Drinking Water 15
Mycobacterium phlei) may provide suitable disinfection models. They
observed that the yeast was more resistant to free chlorine than were
poliovirus 1 and the enteric bacteria under all conditions tested. The
acid-fast bacilli were most resistant.
There is no generally accepted disinfection model for protozoan cysts.
In disinfection studies for protozoan diseases, investigators have used the
pathogen or its cysts. Work with such systems is, however, generally
difficult.
The use of disinfection models provides useful information that is
helpful to the comparison of the relative efficiencies of various disinfec-
tants in the laboratory and in controlled field investigations. Strains of E.
cold have been used extensively as models for enteric pathogenic bacteria.
While not as widely accepted, the bacterial viruses of E. cold are used as
disinfection models for enteric viruses. The difficulty of available
methods has limited the number of disinfection studies with protozoan
cysts.
LABORATORY CULTURES VERSUS NATURALLY OCCURRING ORGANISMS
The resistance or sensitivity to disinfectants of some bacteria (e.g.,
E. coli) in the laboratory may bear very little resemblance to their
responses in nature. This is true in spite of the fact that standardized
procedures govern the conditions under which cells are grown, harvest-
ed, washed, etc., when they are used as inocula. Examples of such
differences range from Gram-negative bacteria and their comparative
resistance to disinfectants in general (Carson et al., 1972; Favero et al.,
1971, 1975) to Gram-positive bacterial spores and heat resistance (Bond
et al., 1973) and to halogen resistance of Entamoeba histolytica cysts from
simian hosts as opposed to those grown in in-vitro systems (Stringer et al.,
19751. Presumably, the mechanisms creating this phenomenon among
these three groups vary widely.
The comparative resistance to disinfectants among Gram-negative
bacteria varies greatly. A good example of this is the study of Favero and
Drake ~ 1966~. They first applied the term "naturally occurring" to
certain Gram-negative bacteria with the potential for rapid growth in
water. They observed that Pseudomonas alcaligenes, a common bacterial
contaminant in iodinated swimming pools, could grow well in swimming
pool waters that had been sterilized by membrane filters and rendered
free of iodine or chlorine. Starting with contaminated swimming pool
water that contained a variety of bacteria, they isolated a pure culture of
P. alcaligenes by an extinction-dilution technique in which filter-steri-
OCR for page 128
128 DRINKING WATER AND HEALTH
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The Disinfection of Drinking Water 129
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
chlorine dioxide
