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OCR for page 89
Body Composition and Physical Performance 1992.
Pp. 89-103. Washington, D.C.
National Academy Press
6
Army Data: Body Composition
and Physical Capacity
James A. Vogel and Karl E. Fried!
INTRODUCTION
Body dimensions and body composition are known to influence the
capacity for physical performance. Taller stature, for example, is associat-
ed with longer muscle length, which in turn is associated with proportional-
ly greater muscle cross-sectional area and muscle mass (Astrand and
Rodahl, 19861. The greater muscle area and mass of the taller individual is
related to proportionally greater force development; for example, strength
and aerobic capacity are proportional to the cube of height, with aerobic
capacity also proportional to the two-thirds power of body weight (Astrand
and Rodahl, 1986; Hebbelnick and Ross, 1974; see also Malina, 1975~.
Body composition associations with exercise capacity are less well de-
fined mathematically but nevertheless are quite evident. For example, it is
apparent that there is a relationship between marathon running performance
and a body type characterized by leanness and modest muscle mass, or
between football defensive linemen and a large muscle mass and modest-to-
high levels of body fat (BF). Thus in athletic performance, particularly in
elite athletes, the influence of body dimensions and composition are readily
evident (McArdle et al., 19851.
In contrast, the association of body composition with the capacity for
occupational task performance has received little attention. One exception
to this may be the military services who use on-thejob body weight or BE
standards or both. At least in the case of the U.S. Army, these standards are
89
OCR for page 90
9o
JAMES A. VOGEL AND KARL E. FRIEDL
said to be based in part on the requirements for physical job perfor-
mance. In recent years the Army has become increasingly concerned with
excess body weight and BF, although this concern appears to be focused as
much on appearance as it is on performance. The relationship between
military appearance and BF has been addressed earlier (Hodgdon et al.,
1990).
Physical fitness or the capacity for physical performance is not a single
entity but is composed of several components, each representing a separate
source or pathway of energy for muscular activity. Although all energy for
muscular contraction is derived initially from muscle, the size of these
energy systems or fitness components are not equally influenced by the
size of the muscle mass or the fat-free component. Likewise, the rela-
tively metabolically inactive fat mass also does not influence these fitness
components in similar ways. Therefore our consideration of body composi-
tion on physical performance must differentiate between these components
of fitness capacity.
The purpose of this report is to address the relationship of the two
major components of body composition- fat and fat-free mass (FFM)-
with the major components of physical performance capacity aerobic power
and strength and present new data on these relationships in a large Army
population. Emphasis is placed on how these relationships might be used
to establish BF standards for the U.S. Army.
DESIGN AND METHODS
The data presented here were collected as part of a larger project to
validate BF standards based on objective criteria, including physical perfor-
mance. Measurements were made on an unselected population of soldiers
at Fort Hood, Texas, and Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The sample
obtained at Carlisle Barracks, which provided most of the 40+ age group,
consisted of students from the Army War College who were likely to be
more physically fit relative to the rest of the sample. The total sample
consisted of 1,126 men and 265 women. Age and racial distributions of the
sample are given in Table 6-1.
Body composition was determined from hydrostatic weighing (Fitzger-
ald et al., 1987; Goldman and Buskirk, 1961) using the Siri equation (Sir),
1961) to estimate BF from density; residual lung volume was measured by
oxygen dilution (Wilmore et al., 19804. Aerobic capacity was assessed as
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) determined from a treadmill progressive
running procedure (Maksud and Coutts, 1971) that measured oxygen uptake
by the open circuit procedure with Douglas bags, and maximal lift capacity
(MLC) by an incremental maximal lifting test to a height of 152 cm
(McDaniel et al., 19831. Scores on two items of the U.S. Army's physical
OCR for page 91
BODY COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CAPACITY
TABLE 6-1 Distribution of Sample by Gender, Age and Racial
Grouping
Men (n* = 1,126)
Women (n = 265)
Age
Group White Black HispanicWhite Black Hispanic
17-20 102 40 1338 14 6
21-27 203 117 5180 67 8
28-39 167 80 5233 13 4
40+ 228 14 592 -
Total 700 251 175153 94 18
*n = number of subjects
91
fitness test (2-mile run and sit-ups) were also collected by self-report. A
preliminary description of this study was previously reported (Fitzgerald
et al., 1986~.
RESULTS
Body Composition and Performance Capacity Related to Age
The U.S. Army's BF standards are established according to age, using
arbitrary age groupings set some years ago. Table 6-2 presents the mean
plus or minus standard deviation (+ SD) of the body composition variables,
and Table 6-3 presents the corresponding values for performance variables
for these established age groups. In this sample, percent BF and fat mass of
men increased with age across all age groups while FFM was stable. Wom-
en's BF was not different between the first two age groups (17 to 20 and 21
to 27 years) but did increase in the third age grouping (28 to 39 years).
Maximal oxygen uptake decreased through the first three age groups in
men, on an absolute basis, relative to body weight and relative to fat-free
weight. In women, the decrease was clearly evident only on a body weight
basis. Two-mile run time followed the same pattern as VO2 maX (per kg body
weight). MLC also decreased as a function of increasing age in men, most
prominently when expressed relative to body weight, but it was largely
unaffected by age in the women's sample.
Performance Capacity in Relation to Body Composition
Figures 6-1 and 6-2 illustrate contrasting expressions of aerobic and
strength capacity in their relationship to BF and FFM in men. The same
OCR for page 92
92
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OCR for page 94
1
94 NAMES A. VOGEL AND KARL E. FRIEDL
BODY FAT QUARTILES FFM QUARTILES
c ~
a; 44
At:
3
g
2
55
g
45
35
'2 'I
._
G
LL
Cat
15
19 l
n=240 n=246 n=251 n=225 n=237 n=244 n=242 n=239
]107 ~31]
~ ~ _ ~ . ~
'155 155-20.6 20.7-25.6 >25.6
BODY FAT (% of BW)
~ J: ~
'55.8 55.9 60.4605-65.4 >65.4
FAT FREE MASS (kg)
FIGURE 6-1 Relationship between aerobic fitness and body fat, and fat-free mass,
by quartiles in men.
patterns exist for women. Figure 6-1 illustrates that absolute aerobic capac-
ity (maximal oxygen uptake in liters per minute) is not related to the per-
cent BF (metabolically inactive tissue) but instead is related to the amount
of FFM or, more specifically, to the amount of oxygen-consuming muscle
mass. Relative VO2max (per kg of body weight), which is typically used in
expressing aerobic fitness, is related to BF because increasing fat increases
the denominator and thereby lowers the VO2max value. This relationship
corresponds to the physiological situation where the capacity for body
propulsion is decreased as BF or non-energy-producing tissue ("dead
weight") increases. This is also reflected in a similar association with the
2-mile run times. For this reason VO2max is expressed relative to body
weight when referring to the capacity of moving the body as in running.
Figure 6-2 illustrates that absolute lifting capacity is unrelated to BF
but directly related to FFM in men. Absolute lifting capacity is the appro-
priate measure in relationship to actual job task performance. Relative lift
capacity (kg lift per kg of body weight) changes with percent BF because of
the changing denominator. The performance of sit-ups is related to changes
OCR for page 95
BODY COMPOSITION AND PlIYS1CAL CAPACITY
95
in BF, not FFM, apparently due to the mechanical interference of the fat.
Similar results were observed in the women.
These two primary associations, relative VO2max with percent BF, and
absolute MLC with FFM, are shown in further detail for men and women in
scatter plots in Figures 6-3 and 6-4. The observed correlations in each case
are substantial, indicating that BF and FFM account for approximately one-
third of the variability in aerobic capacity and MLC, respectively.
Relationship to Fitness Standards
Although a stated purpose of the U.S. Army's BF standards is to ensure
adequate physical performance capacity (U.S. Army, 1986), the standards
were not actually based on performance requirements (passing scores on the
Army's physical fitness test) when they were initially established and im-
plemented in 1982 (Friedl et al., 19891. Therefore, the data presented here
were used in a retrospective fashion to determine how well the BF standards
did in fact correspond to the physical fitness standards. Two analyses were
carried out.
751
65
55
45
35
25
.95
.75
.65
-
c) 55
.45
7
60
~ ~ _~
25.6
BODY FAT (% of BW)
BODY FAT QUARTILES FFM QUARTILES
n=243 n=215 n~l84 n=159 n=2t1 n=196 n=197 n=196
P1~] 1~13
_
I//
r ~
_
JPP ~
~ q.~_,~
65.4
FAT FREE MASS (kg)
FIGURE 6-2 Relationship between maximal lift capacity (MLC) and body fat, and
fat-free mass, by quartiles in men.
OCR for page 96
96
70 -
E
-
-
~D
, 50
c
x
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-
-
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, 60
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MALES
. . `. .
· ~ _
· . · . . · . ~ · .
I......
·': ~ ...,.t' ;.'; _~
· ~. .
50
Percent body fat
· ~
FEMALES
I.
Percent body fat
FIGURE 6-3 A, Scatter plot illustrating the relationship between VO2 maX and per-
cent body fat in men. VO2 maX = 58.254 - .544 percent body fat; r = -.60; Standard
Error of the Estimate (SEE) = 5.02. B. Scatter plot illustrating the relationship
between VO2 maX and percent body fat in women. VO2 maX = 50.637 - .422 percent
body fat; r = -.55; SEE = 3.77.
OCR for page 97
97
2ool
.^ 125
100
75
50
200
175
-
a,
150
:,
o
Q
-
~ 125
al
inn
75
50
MALES
· ~
/
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fat-free mass (kg)
FEMALES
-
30 40 50 80 70 80 90
Fat-free mass (kg)
FIGURE 6-4 Scatter plots illustrating the relationship between maximal lift capaci-
ty (MLC) and fat-free mass (FFM) A in men (MLC = .502 + 2.107 FFM; r = .62;
Standard Error of the Estimate (SEE) = 20.55) and B in women (MLC = 23.158 +
.945 FFM; r = .38; SEE = 11.751.
OCR for page 98
98
JAMES A. VOGEL AND KARL E. FRIEDL
The first analysis was preliminary in nature and determined in a gen-
eral fashion whether aerobic fitness corresponded to the fat standard by
matching those physically fit versus those unfit against those meeting and
those not meeting the fat standard. This was done with the use of a 2 x 2
contingency table plot (Figure 6-51. A VO2maX of 45 ml/kg body weight/
minute was used as a cutoff point to represent being aerobically fit. This
was an initial attempt to determine if the fat standards were in general
agreement with the fitness standards by computing the number of correct
and incorrect matches. There were 74 percent correct classifications for
men and 84 percent correct matches for women.
This initial attempt to validate fat standards based on a single level of
aerobic fitness did not take into account the actual fitness test scores (2-
mile run times) and their adjustment by age. The second analysis (Friedl
and Vogel, in press) plotted the passing (minimum) 2-mile run time equiva-
lent to VO2max on a histogram of VO2max versus percent BF. In this case,
the BF value used was that determined by the U.S. Army's circumference
measurement procedure as actually applied to soldiers in their units. The
procedure was derived from and validated against hydrostatic weighing (Vogel
et al., 19881. An example of such a plot for the youngest male age group is
shown in Figure 6-6, which identifies the percent BF that corresponds to the
2-mile run score requirement. The figure shows a very good correspon-
dence between the aerobic fitness requirement and the BF standard that had
been previously established for this age group, 20 percent BF. The corre-
spondence of these points for all age groups in men is shown in Table 6-4.
FIT*
UNFIT*
WITHIN
FAT
STANDARD
EXCEED
FAT
STANDARD
Match
No
Match
No
Match
Match
Refers to cut point of 45 ml V02max
FIGURE 6-5 2 x 2 contingency table for validating body fat standards against
aerobic performance by determining the percent of correct matches.
OCR for page 99
BODY COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CAPACITY
60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
99
V02max (ml/kg/min)
r= -0.48; N= 130
. . ... ... .
2 MILE RUN TIME EQUIVALENT
1 ~1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
% BODY FAT (AR 600-9)
UT~ITDU ~ ~=;~_~ ~` `1
Lowry= ~-~ 1ll;~`u'~lalll U1 Max (per kg body weight) versus percent body fat
(by anthropometric equations) showing the minimum 2-mile run test score equiva-
lent for 17- to 20-year old men. SOURCE: J.A. Hodgdon, P. I. Fitzgerald, and J. A.
Vogel. 1990. Relationships between body fat and appearance ratings of U.S. sol-
diers. Technical Report No. 12-90. U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental
Medicine, Natick, Mass.
Thus for men, the established BF standard agrees with the percent BF found
in this population for the passing 2-mile run score for the two youngest age
groups, which makes up a large share of the U.S. Army, but not for the two
older groups. This result suggests that a more liberal BF standard is com-
patible with the aerobic fitness requirements in these older male groups. It
is unlikely, however, that a more liberal BF standard would be acceptable
for appearance criterion.
Such an analysis for women is not possible due to the limited size of
the sample. In general, the relationship between BF and aerobic fitness is
more flat in women than in men, which indicates a weaker relationship
(Friedl et al., 1989, Friedl and Vogel, in press).
Another issue is whether the other component of fitness, strength ca-
pacity, should be related to a body composition standard, that is, a minimal
acceptable level of FFM. Although the relationship between FFM and ab-
solute strength or lifting capacity has been shown (Figure 6-4), the practical
problem is what measures should be used to represent strength fitness in a
OCR for page 100
100
JAMES A. VOGEL AND KARL E. FRIEDL
TABLE 6-4 Correspondence between Aerobic Fitness
Requirement (2-Mile Run Time) and Established Body Fat
Standard by Age Group in Men
2-Mile VO2m" Body Fat
Fitness Standard Equivalent Correspondence Body Fat
Age Group (min) (ml/kg/min) (%) Standard (%)
17-21 15:54 46.4 20 20
22-26 16:36 44.9 22 22
32-36 1 8:00 39.4 27 24
42~6 19:06 35.7 28 26
NOTE: Age groups for fitness and body fat are not identical.
field fitness test. The current U.S. Army fitness test for strength or strength
endurance is sit-ups and push-ups. Neither of these items are correlated
with any actual Army tasks, such as lifting (Meyers et al., 19841. Thus in
attempting to identify a minimal FFM standard, appropriate test item mea-
sures of strength would first need to be identified that are suitable for the
Army's fitness test battery.
DISCUSSION
The data presented here show a moderate relationship between both
aerobic and strength capacity with certain body composition components in
a heterogenous population. These relationships are explained by the physi-
ological fact that greater muscle mass will produce greater muscular strength
or lift capacity, as well as maximal oxygen uptake, while greater fat mass
will increase the required relative amount of oxygen uptake to propel the
body that has more dead weight to propel.
These relationships are important in the military and other occupational
settings for two reasons: (1) to set body composition standards that will
support the level of physical performance capacity that is required and (2)
to appropriately express fitness capacity tailored to different occupational
activities. In regard to the former, it might be argued that if one displays
adequate fitness capacity (passes the fitness test) or can successfully per-
form the physical demands of his or her job, then a body composition
standard is unnecessary. However, a body composition standard (that is, a
minimum requirement) at least for BF, is added insurance for achieving the
desired level of fitness. Because fitness tests are not perfect measures of
capacity, nor is fitness capacity a perfect indicator of job performance abil-
ity, a BF standard, in this case percent BF, would be an additional indica
OCR for page 101
BODY COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL CAPACITY
101
talon of adequate level of physical activity and capacity for a particular level
of desired physical performance. Furthermore, even with an adequate ca-
pacity level, an inappropriately high BF may be a risk factor for musculo-
skeletal and heat-related injuries. This risk, along with the added relation-
ships between BF and appearance or health, at least in the military and
public safety arenas, seems to justify the desirability of body composition
standards in addition to fitness standards.
With respect to the appropriate expressions of physical capacity, body
composition is important when contrasting fitness capacities between gen-
ders or between individuals of different body size or stature. In such cases,
differences in exercise capacity may be largely accounted for simply by
differences in body weight, BF, or muscle mass. In comparing strength
capacity of men and women, absolute force is a more appropriate expres-
sion relative to job performance, while strength (force) per unit of FFM
would be advantageous when evaluating the response to a training program
or comparing the contractile "quality" of muscle.
VO2m~` expressed in liters per minute, uncorrected for body or muscle
mass, provides a measure of the total amount of aerobic power that the body
can produce and is positively related to the absolute quantity of muscle
present (Buskirk and Taylor, 1957; Welch et al., 19581. For the same level
of training and fat mass, muscular individuals are likely to outperform less
muscled individuals when significant amounts of external weight are car-
ried or backpacked. This difference is due to the proportionally smaller
"dead weight" being carried by the more muscular individual. The greater
the external load, the more appropriate is the use of the expression of abso-
lute aerobic capacity (VO2max in liters per minute) as compared to minimal
or no-load conditions where VO2 maX adjusted by body weight is more useful.
A final comment is appropriate regarding the question of whether BF
content alone is a good indicator of aerobic fitness (Parrish and Gustin,
1986; Slack et al., 1985~. Direct measures of aerobic capacity (VO2max) or
aerobic performance (for example, 2-mile run for time) will always be pref-
erable to indirect indications such as BF when assessing an individual's
ability to carry out aerobic tasks if there are no measurement constraints.
The fact that percent BF is correlated rather well with VO2 ma,` (an r of about
0.6) suggests that there may be limited applications where fat content could
be used as a screening device or indicator of relative fitness in population
studies. It is inappropriate as an estimate of aerobic fitness in groups
homogenous in terms of fitness or fatness, in highly fit individuals, or in
following changes in fitness of individuals during training.
In sum, physical capacity, in the context of occupational task perfor-
mance, is related to body composition in a heterogenous population, with
BF accounting for about one-third of the variability seen in aerobic capacity
and FFM accounting for one-third of the variability in muscle endurance/
OCR for page 102
102
JAMES A. VOGEL AND KARL E. FRIEDL
lifting capacity. The expression of physical capacity, whether uncorrected
for body size or composition, depends on the physical activity or compari-
son of concern. BE content can also be used in some circumstances as an
indicator of aerobic fitness. The U.S. Army's BE standards for men corre-
spond to the aerobic standards in the younger age groups but deviate in the
older groups due apparently to the influence of an appearance criterion.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
body fat
