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Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions
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Index
A
Aberdeen Proving Ground (Maryland), 24, 27t, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t, 221 t, 223t, 224t, 226f, 230f
Acetylcholene, 41-42
Acetylcholinesterase, 41 n.5, 41-42
Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, 114-115
Acid chorinolysis, 111, 117
Activated-carbon filtering
action of, 107
in baseline technology, 17, 18, 28-29, 108
of chlorinated dioxin, 86
disposal of waste from, 107-108
role of, 13, 14, 19, 20, 106-107, 108, 194-195
in storage and certification, 88
in wet-air oxidation, 144
Adams process
advantages, 183
applications, 182-183
chlorinated compounds in, 182
development status, 180-182
disadvantages, 183
research needs, 183-184
technology of, 180, 181f
waste streams in, 183
Advanced Research Projects Agency, 135, 148
Afterburner processing
in alternative technologies, 19, 205
in baseline approach, 2, 19, 24, 194, 203, 205
catalytic oxidation for, 13, 19, 174, 176, 192, 205
chlorinated dioxin synthesis in, 86
in high-temperature pyrolysis, 12
molten salt systems for, 19, 205
role of, 19, 21, 205, 207
supercritical water oxidation for, 11, 19
techniques, 19, 21, 199, 207
in thermal treatment, 97-98
Alcohol, 113 n.1
GB neutralization in, 113-114, 186
in low-temperature detoxification, 6, 113-114, 186
in neutralization process, 62, 186
Alkanes, C2-C7, 148
Alternative technologies
afterburners in, 19, 205
assessment of, 2-3, 5, 34-36, 83-84, 92-94, 259-261
categories of, 6, 185
cost considerations, 5, 91-92
development/demonstration times, 4-5, 20, 89-90, 91t
development of, 29-30
energy consumption in, 92
hazardous byproducts from, 85-86
high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 12-13
high-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 12
low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase
detoxification, 6-10, 16, 109-110
low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation, 10-11, 16, 109-110
metal parts in, 21, 207
moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation, 11, 16
monitoring of, 87
non-viable, 35
in other countries, 62, 74
sources for, 2, 34-35
for Strategy 1, 15-17, 32-33, 200-201
for Strategy 2, 17-19, 33-34, 201-205, 202t
summary of processes, 7-9t, 187-189t
toxic air emissions in, 19-20, 205-206
use of, 3, 29
See also specific technology
Aluminum, in M55 rockets, 97
Ambrose, James R., 31, 210
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Ammonia
in GB detoxifiation, 113
sodium metal ha, 122
in supercritical water oxidation, 148
Ammonium peroxydisulfate, 120
Anniston Army Depot, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t
Army Research Office, 135, 148
Artillery, 42, 44f, 47t, 48t
Aryl chlorides, 114
Atomic Energy Commission, 171
Atomization, 103
Azoxy compounds, 114
B
Baseline technology
activated-carbon filters in, 17, 18, 108
afterburners in, 2, 19, 24, 194, 203, 205
augmentation strategies, 17, 18
development of, 24-26
efficiency of, 26 n.4
elements of, 23, 24, 25f
energetics in, 203-204, 204t
gas waste in, 24, 28, 104, 194, 203-204
implementation schedule, 230-232f
liquid waste in, 196
metal parts in, 24, 98, 193, 203-204, 204t
munitions disassembly in, 77-78
objections to, 2, 30
operational verification testing of, 24-26
process of, 1-2, 3, 94, 203
storage and certification in, 88
Benzene, 148
Binary chemical weapons, 1 n.1, 22 n.1
Biological processes
applications, 10-11, 110, 126-128, 136, 190
batch bioreactor size, 134
concerns about, 127
diffusional limitations, 85
in direct destruction of agents, 128-130, 133-134
for energetics, 132
enzyme-based capabilities, 129t, 130
for GB reaction products, 131-132
in initial detoxification, 127
methane by-products, 132
for mustard agents, 132
oxygen dilution of emissions from, 135
processing time in, 133-134
for reaction products, 131-32, 134-135
research needs in, 21, 109-110, 132-134, 206
for VX reaction products, 131-132
waste from, 132, 134-135
for wet-air oxidation wastes, 144, 145
whole cells method, 133
bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide, 38
Blister agents. See Mustard agents
Bombs, 42, 42 n.6, 44f, 45f, 47t
See also Munitions
Bulk material
biodegradation of, 131
chemical processes for, 111
high-temperature systems for, 204
Bursters, 48, 48 n.7, 77
Butyl alcohol, 119
By-products
of Adams process, 180, 183
of biological processes, 127, 131
of catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170
chlorinated dioxins, 85-86
in electrochemical oxidation, 278
in HD-peracid interaction, 120
of hydrogenation processes, 178-179
hydrogenation processing of, 176, 178
of indirect heating, 97
of ionizing radiation procedure, 272
of molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156
of sodium hydroxide neutralization of GB, 112-113
in sodium hydroxide neutralization of VX, 113-114
of supercritical water oxidation, 151
valuable, 92, 179
water as, 101-102
of wet-air oxidation, 144
See also Reaction products;
Waste streams/management
C
Calcium carbonate, 76, 99
Calcium fluoride, 99
Calcium hydroxide, 6, 10, 99
HD reaction with, 119, 186
Calcium salts, 77
Canada, 62, 63t, 64t, 65t, 113
Carbon dioxide, 76, 190
lime in capturing, 20, 104, 106, 196, 205
salt waste formation and, 99, 193
storage systems, 88-89, 105
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Catalytic extraction, 153
Catalytic fixed bed, 13, 192
Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation
advantages, 170-171
application, 170
bed composition, 169, 170, 171
development status, 170
disadvantages, 171
explosives destruction in, 169-170
process, 169-170
research needs, 171
waste streams in, 170
See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation
Catalytic hydrogenation. See Hydrogenation processes
Catalytic oxidation advantages, 175-176
as afterburner, 19, 205
applications, 174, 175, 176
development status, 175
disadvantages, 176
process, 174-175
research needs, 176
waste streams, 175
in wet-air oxidation, 144
See also Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation;
High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation
Caustic hydrolysis, 29
Center for Hazardous Material Research, 180
Ceramic materials, 151
Chemical Agent Munitions Disposal System (CAMDS)24, 54, 56t, 57t, 59t, 62
See also Tooele Army Depot
Chemical agents
additives in, 41, 41 n.4
breakdown products, 76-77
chemical composition of, 1 n.2, 76
classes of, 1 n.1, 23
demilitarization strategies for, 15-18, 197-200
distribution in munitions, 47t, 48t
lethal doses of, 82t
permissible air concentrations of, 82t, 87
properties of, 37-41
toxicity of, 41-42
See also Organophosphate nerve agents;
specific agents
Chemical detoxification
advantages of, 110-111
battlefield systems, 111, 123
biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132
decontamination standards and, 84, 118
diffusional limitations in, 84-85
experience with, 6-10
of metal parts, 84, 98, 118-119
obstacles to, 110
reducing agents in organic synthesis, 121-122
role of, 20-21, 29, 206
See also Hydrolysis;
Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification;
neutralization processes
Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program (CSDP)
binary chemical weapons in, 1 n.1
completion date, 22, 78-80, 197
environmental impact studies for, 26, 28
goals of, 1, 31-32, 196-197
legislative history, 22, 24-26
schedule for, 22, 26, 27t, 78-80, 197
strategies for complying with, 15-19, 32-34, 197-200
Chemical stockpiles
contents of, 1, 23, 37, 49, 52t
locations of, 1, 26, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t
munitions in, 42-49
Chemical Weapons Convention, 3-4, 22-23, 35
Chloride ions, corrosion from, 150, 152
Chlorine/Chlorinated compounds, 6, 77, 85-86, 122
in Adams process, 182
hydrogenation processes for, 176, 177f, 178
as oxidizing agent for VX, 117
salt waste from, 30
in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 148
Chloromethane, 271
m-chloroperbenzoic acid, 120
Circulating Bed Combustor, 169
Clean Air Act, 145
Closed-loop gas containment, 14, 18, 28
See also Storage and certification
Coal gasification, 160-163
Commonwealth of Independent States, 22-23, 74, 116
disposal experiences in, 62, 67t, 68t
Concerned Citizens for Maryland's Environment, 36
Corrosion. See Equipment corrosion
Cost considerations, 5, 91-92
cost per pound of agent, 92
full-scale production, 220-224
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reverse assembly function in, 92
technology development, 91-92, 219-220
transportation, 33
waste shipments from Johnston Atoll, 235-236
Coumaphos, 130
Cresol, 178
Cryofracture process, 24 n3, 95-95, 205
D
DeChlor/KGME process, 114
Decontamination fluid, 33, 33 n.7, 78, 99, 114, 196 DS2, 114
Decontamination standards, 4, 82-83, 84-85
Level 1X, 82
See also Level 3X decontamination;
Level 5X decontamination
Demilitarization Protective Ensemble, 81
Department of Defense, 135
Department of Energy, 148, 171
Detection, 84
of charcoal bed contamination, 107
of chlorinated dioxins, 86-87
difficulties in, 84-85
false positives in, 87
of GB, 84
minimum limits of, 233-234
process, 87
research needs in, 87
Detoxification
alternative strategies for, 200-202, 201t
biological processes for, 126-128
of charcoal filter materials, 107-108
with deferred oxidation, 20, 32-33, 80, 197-198, 206
in demilitarization strategies, 15-18, 197-200
of energetics, 16-17, 18-19, 200
ionizing radiation for, 122-123
low-temperature, liquid-phase processes for, 6-10, 109, 186-190
of metal parts, 16, 32-33, 84, 197
peroxydisulfate salts in, 124
See also Chemical detoxification
Development times, 91t, 220, 223-224, 226-228f
for alternative technologies, 20, 198, 206, 226-228
in assessing alternative technologies, 4-5
for cryofracture process, 95-95
estimating, 5, 92 n3
factors in, 89-90, 217-218
opportunities for shortening, 90
sodium hydroxide hydrolysis of GB, 200
for wet air oxidation, 146
Diethylenetriamine, 114
Diisopropyl carbodiimide, 41 n.4
Dimethyl surfoxide, 276
Dioxins. See Chlorinated dioxins
Dioxins, chlorinated, 85-86
Disposal sites, 2, 26
Drain-in-furnace, 29
DS2, 33 n.7, 114
Dunnage, 48-49
agent in crevices of, 84-85
alternative technologies for, 21, 203, 204t
in baseline approach, 24
in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170
decontamination strategies, 1, 2, 2 n.3, 16-17, 97
low-temperature processes for, 110
munitions, 78
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167
thermal treatments for, 97
E
Edgewood Research, Development and Engineering Center, 24
Electric kilns, 12, 18, 191
Electro-Pyrolysis, Inc. furnace, 159f
Electrochemical oxidation, 206
advantages, 277
applications, 21, 124, 206, 276
development status, 275-276
disadvantages, 277
energy use in, 277
GB in, 276
potential operating limits, 277-278
process, 124-125, 274-275
research needs, 125, 278
waste streams in, 278
Electrolytic regeneration, 10, 190
Elkem Multipurpose Furnace, 153, 155f
Elkera Technology, 153
Emulsification
in HD detoxification, 119-120, 186
in low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification, 10
Energetics, 1, 48
in Adams process, 182
alternative technologies for, 21, 203, 204, 204t
in baseline approach, 24, 203-204, 204t
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bioremediation of, 132
in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 169-170
detoxification strategies, 16-17, 18-19, 200
disposal problems with, 33
in high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 13
in high-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 191
in low-temperature oxidation, 11
mechanical separation of, 96
in molten salt oxidation, 173, 174
munitions disassembly and, 77-78
in plasma arc processes, 157
reaction with potassium hydroxide, 114
reaction with sodium hydroxide, 114
in supercritical water oxidation, 11, 148, 149, 150, 152, 191
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 166-167, 169, 291
thermal treatments for, 97
in wet air oxidation, 11, 141, 146, 191
Energy use
in Adams process, 183
in alternative technologies, 92
in electrochemical oxidation, 277
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 168, 290
Environmental Protection Agency, 81
Environmental risk
of air emissions, 19-20, 205-206
permissible agent concentrations in air, 81, 82t, 87
in waste storage, 4, 106
Enzyme-based hydrolysis, 128-130
research needs in, 133-134
Equipment corrosion, 117
from acid catalysts, 115
in gasification pros, 161, 163
in supercritical water oxidation, 149, 150-151, 152
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167
in wet air oxidation, 142-143
Ethanolamine, 6, 186
in destruction of GB, 62, 67t, 115-116, 131, 186
in destruction of mustard agents, 62, 67t, 121, 186
salt wastes and, 99
Ethyl-N, N-dimethyl phosphoramidocyanidate. See GA
Ethylene glycol, 113
Explosives. See Energetics
F
Fenton's reagents, 124
Flue gas recycling, 102-103
Fluidized bed oxidation, 12-13, 17, 18, 21
See also Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation
Fluoride/Fluorine, 30, 77, 149
in supercritical water oxidation, 150, 152
in wet air oxidation, 143
France, 74
Fuzes, 48, 48 n.7, 77
G
GA, 23, 65t
chemical structure, 37, 37 n.1
lethal doses of, 82t
permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83
storage of, 42
toxicity of, 41
Galson process, 114
Gas storage
advantages of, 19-20, 205
estimating requirements for, 103-104
techniques for, 14, 88-89, 105-106, 195
See also Gas wastes;
Storage and certification
Gas wastes, 4, 11, 194
activated-carbon adsorption for, 14, 20, 106-108, 194-195
in Adams process, 180, 183
afterburner technologies for, 19, 21, 199
in baseline approach, 24, 28, 86, 104, 194, 203-204
in biodegradation of reaction products, 134-135
in hydrogenation processes, 178, 179
in hydrolysis, 33
in molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156
monitoring technology for, 87
in plasma arc processes, 157
recirculated, 14, 102-103
reducing volume of, 14, 16, 20, 102-104, 192-193, 194, 195, 205-206
strategies for managing, 13-14, 16, 17-18, 18-19, 88-89, 194, 205 -206
in supercritical water oxidation, 16, 151, 190
in thermal decomposition, 97
in wet air oxidation, 16, 144, 145t
See also Carbon dioxide;
Gas storage
Gasification processes
advantages, 163
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applications, 161
development status, 160
disadvantages, 163
research needs, 161, 163
technology of, 160, 161t, 162t
wastes products from, 163
GB, 1, 20-21, 23
acid-catalyzed hydrolysis for, 114-115
biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132
chemical neutralization of, 62, 65t, 67t, 70t, 73t
chemical structure, 37, 37 n.1, 38f
detection levels, 84, 233-234
direct biological destruction of, 128-130, 133-134
ethanolamine in destruction of, 62, 67t, 115-116, 131, 186
lethal doses of, 82t
level 5X decontamination of, 263-264, 265
low-temperature detoxification for, 6, 10, 109, 186
moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation for, 11
nitrogen compounds in, 101
organic synthesis agents and, 121-122
oxidation reaction for, 276
past disposal experiences, 54, 56t, 57t, 58t, 62
permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83
properties, 38, 39-40t
reaction with alkali in alcohol, 113-114
reaction with sodium hydroxide, 112-114, 186, 200
salt wastes, 99, 100t, 193
storage, 42
in supercritical water oxidation, 149, 281, 287
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 287-291
toxicity of, 41
wet air oxidation of, after hydrolysis, 141-142, 143, 144
GD, chemical neutralization of, 67t
General Electric KPEG process, 114
Germany, 66t
Greenpeace International, 30, 35, 36
H
H, 1, 23
lethal doses of, 82t
low-temperature detoxification for, 109
organic synthesis agents and, 121-122
past disposal experiences, 54, 55t
permissible air concentrations, 82t
with potassium hydroxide in methanol, 113-114
properties, 38, 39-40t, 41
See also Mustard agents
Hazardous materials, definition of, 37 n.2
HD, 1, 23
calcium hydroxide in detoxification of, 186
chemical structure, 38f
convened to thiodiethanol, 119
emulsification, 119-120, 186
ethanolamine in detoxification of, 116, 121
lethal doses of, 82t
level 5X decontamination of, 265, 266
in low-temperature, liquid-phase detoxification, 6, 10, 118-121,186
minimum detection limits, 233-234
nitrogen compounds in, 101
past disposal experiences, 61t
permissible air concentrations, 82t
properties, 38, 39-40t, 41
reaction with oxidizing agents, 119-120
reaction with peracids, 120
solubility, 118, 119
See also Mustard agents
Heteroatoms
in Adams process, 183
in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 171
in electrochemical oxidation, 275, 277
in form of stable salts, 76
in hydrogenation processes, 176, 179
in plasma arc processes, 156
in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 149
Hexachloroethane, 271
HF. See Hydrofluoric acid
High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 137
application of, 12-13, 192, 203
summary of processes, 9t, 189t, 192-193
See also Catalytic oxidation;
Molten salt oxidation
High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 29, 137, 191-192
application of, 12
gasification processes, 160-163
summary of processes, 9t, 189t
See also Molten metal pyrolysis;
Plasma arc processes;
Synthetica Steam Detoxifier
HPO2, 122
HT, 1, 23
lethal doses of, 82t
permissible air concentrations, 82t
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properties, 38, 39-40t, 41
See also Mustard agents
Hydrocarbons
oxidation of, 274-275
in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 149
Hydrofluoric acid
in acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, 115
in ethanolamine processing, 115-116
in hydrolysis of GB, 113
Hydrogen, in disposal process, 76
Hydrogen chloride, 175
Hydrogen peroxide, 6, 21
in chemical oxidation, 124, 206
sodium hydroxide and, 116
VX in sodium hydroxide and, 116, 186
Hydrogen sulfide, 175
Hydrogenation processes, 189t
advantages, 179
applications, 176, 178
catalysts in, 178
development status, 178
process, 176, 177f
research needs, 179
waste streams, 178-179
Hydrolysis
acid-catalyzed, 114-115
caustic, 29
enzyme-based, 128-130
of GB, 112-116
of mustard agents, 118-119
role of, 3, 32
salt wastes from, 100
of VX, 116-117
waste products from, 3, 33, 100, 110
See also Chemical detoxification
I
In-shell combustion, 29
Incineration
in baseline technology, 2, 8, 24, 28, 94
chlorinated dioxin synthesis in, 85-86
of contaminated carbon filters, 107
of GB, 62
level 5X standard for, 4, 32, 83, 84
of M55 rockets, 78
nitrogen oxides in, 101
opposition to, 28, 30
of VX, 62
See also, High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation;
High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis
Indirect heating techniques, 97-98
International agreements
Chemical Weapons Convention, 3-4, 22-23, 197
compliance with, 20, 32, 80, 197-198, 206
Ionizing radiation, 122-123
advantages, 272
applications, 271-272
development needs, 273
development status, 271
disadvantages, 272
technology, 271
waste streams in, 272
Iraq, 37, 72t, 73t
Isopropyl methyl phosphonofluoridate. See GB
J
Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS), 1, 2, 24-26 , 27t, 49, 51t, 52t, 60t, 61t, 62
chlorinated dioxin reaction products in, 86
demilitarization process, 77-78, 79f
gas storage requirements, 104
nitrogen oxide generation at, 101
solid waste in, 82
transportation of waste from, 235-236
K
Kentucky Environmental Foundation, 36
L
Land mines, 42, 43f, 47t, 77
Landfill, 33
contaminated carbon filters in, 107, 108
dunnage materials in, 2 n.3
salt wastes in, 99
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, 124
Lethal
definition of, 37 n.2
doses of chemical agents, 82t
Level 1X decontamination, 82
Level 3X decontamination, 4, 82-83, 84
of metal, chemical processes for, 98
salt wastes, shipment of, 100-101
Level 5X decontamination, 4, 32, 83, 84
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data sources, 262-263, 266-267
equivalency, 83
of GB, 263-264, 265
of HD, 265, 266
indirect heating methods for, 97
of M55 rocket, 263-264
of metal wastes, 98-99
of VX, 263-264, 265, 266
for waste salts, 195
Lewisite (L), 41, 42, 82t
Lexington-Blue Grass Army Depot, 27t, 30, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t, 222t, 223t, 224t, 228f, 232f
LiAlH4, 122
Lime, 20, 104, 205
Liquid waste, 4, 32, 196
from biological degradation, 134-135
biological oxidation for, 10-11
in hydrogenation processes, 178-179
internal recycling for, 81
source of, 15
standards for, 81
in supercritical water oxidation, 151
water, 101-102
Locations of stockpiles, 1, 26, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t
Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification
applications, 6-10, 16, 17, 32, 186, 200-201
for GB, 112-116, 186
irreversibility of, 109, 186-190
for mustard agents, 118-121, 186
research needs, 10
summary of processes in, 7t, 187t
technology, 6-10, 186
for VX, 116-117, 186
See also Biological processes;
Chemical detoxification
Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation
application, 10-11, 16
electrochemical, 21, 124, 206, 275-278
prospects for, 109, 203
role of, 123, 190
summary of processes in, 8t, 188t
technology, 10, 190
ultraviolet radiation in, 123, 124, 125-126, 190
See also Biological processes;
Oxidation processes
M
M34 bomblet dusters, 34
M55 rockets, 29, 33, 42, 43f, 47t, 48t
disposal productivity, 80
in indirect thermal decomposition, 97
level 5X decontamination of, 263-264
removal of agent from, 77-78
sheer machine for, 77
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 54
MC-1 bomb, 42 n.6
Mechanized processes, for disassembly, 96
Mediated electrochemical oxidation, 124-125, 274, 277
Metal parts
alternative technologies for, 14, 21, 203, 204t, 207
in baseline approach, 1-2, 14, 24, 193, 203-204, 240t
in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170
chemical detoxification of, 84
detoxification of, 16, 32-33, 193
high-temperature processes for, 12
indirect heating of, 97-98
low-temperature processes for, 110
in molten metal pyrolysis, 19, 153
oxidation of, 17
postprocessing operations, 98-99
in supercritical water oxidation, 149
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167
thermal treatments for, 19, 97, 191
Methane
as biological process by-product, 132
in supercritical water oxidation, 148
Methanol, 113
2-methoxyethanol, 113
Methylene chloride, 175
Mineralization, 17-19
alternative strategies, 201-205, 202t
definition of, 32 n.6
of gas wastes, 196
goals, 33-34, 198-200, 199f
See also Oxidation processes
Mitre Corporation, 26
MK-94
bomb, 42 n.6
MK-116 bomb, 42 n.6
Moderate-temperature, high-pressure processes, 138
application of, 11, 16, 17, 191
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examples of, 137, 190
process, 11, 190-191
research needs, 11
See also Supercritical water oxidation;
Wet air oxidation
Molten metal pyrolysis
applications, 19, 21, 153, 156, 191
development status, 153
process, 12, 152-153, 154-155f
reaction products, 153
research needs, 156
waste streams, 18
See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation
Molten Metal Technology, 153, 154f
Molten salt oxidation, 12-13, 17, 18, 21
advantages, 174, 192
as afterburner, 19, 205
application, 173
development status, 171-172
disadvantages, 173, 174
energetics in, 173, 174, 204
energy use, 92
process, 171, 173
research needs, 174
waste streams 173
See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation
Mortar cartridges, 42, 47t
Moving bed evaporator, 163-164, 166, 169
Munitions, 49>42
in baseline technology, 77-78
composition of, 47t, 48t
dunnage, 78
geographic distribution, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t
ionizing radiation for, 122-123, 272
mechanical disassembly of, 96
plasma are processes for, 157
reverse assembly of, 23, 77-78, 80, 92, 94, 95-96, 201
storage conditions, 77
waste streams, 77-78
work environment for disposal of, 78
Mustard agents
action of, 42
Army code designations, 23
biological processes for, 132
calcium chloride generation in disposal of, 99
chemical detoxification of, 63t, 67t, 118
chemical properties, 38n.3, 39-40t, 41
containers for, 16
disposal in Iraq, 72t
gas, 1, 3
in gel form, 10, 41, 96
hydrolysis of, 118-119
long-term exposure to, 42
mediated electrochemical oxidation of, 125
moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation for, 11
past disposal experiences, 54, 55t
permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83
sodium hypochlorite reactions, 119-120
storage of, 42
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 169
See also H;
HD;
HT
N
NaBH4, 122
NaOH. See Sodium hydroxide
Napthalene, 148
National Academy of Sciences, 29, 54
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 148
National Defense Authorization Act, 23 n.2, 30
National Environmental Technology Application Corporation, 180
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 81
National Research Council, 23, 26, 29, 34
National Science Foundation, 148
Nerve agents. See Organophosphate nerve agents
Nervous system, nerve agent action in, 41-42
Neutralization processes, 54, 56t, 62, 65t, 67t, 74
alkali in alcohol, 113-114
ammonia in, 113
for GB, 62, 65t, 70t, 73t, 112-114
for mustard agents, 63t, 67t
potassium hydroxide in, 113-114
for salt wastes, 99
See also Chemical detoxification;
Ethanolamine;
Sodium hydroxide
Newport Army Ammunition Plant (Indiana), 26, 27t, 49, 50f, 51t, 221t, 223t, 224f, 227f, 231f
Nickel, in fluidized-bed oxidation, 170, 171
Nitrogen
in combustion, 102-103
in supercritical water oxidation, 148
Nitrogen oxides, 101
from ethanolamine, 115-116, 121
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in supercritical water oxidation, 149
Norepinephrine, 41
O
LO-ethyl-S-[2-diisopropyl aminoethyl]methylphosphonothiolate. See VX
Occupational, Safety and Health Act, 81
Ocean dumping, 29, 54
Office of Naval Research, 135
Office of Technology Assessment, 30
Ogden Environmental Services, 169
Organic synthesis, 121-122
Organophosphate nerve agents, 23
biological detoxification of, 127, 129t, 130
chemical composition, 37
See also Chemical agents
Ortho-iodosobenzoate catalyst, 112
Oxidation processes
acidic products of, 98
carbon dioxide in, 76, 190
deferred, 20, 32-33, 80, 197-198, 206
in demilitarization strategies, 2, 17-18, 32, 34, 190
Fenton's reagents in, 124
GB in, 276
lid in, 119-121
hydrocarbons in, 274-275
hydrogen peroxide in, 124
low-temperature, liquid-phase, 109
nitrogen oxides in, 101
one-step approaches, 17
peroxydisulfate salts in, 124
reducing gas waste volume in, 102-103
ultraviolet light in, 125-126
for VX in acid, 117
See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation;
Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation;
moderate-temperature, high-pressure processes
OXONE, 116, 117, 120
Oxygen, pure
in afterburners, 19
in combustion processes, 11, 13, 196
in diluting gaseous emissions from bioremediation, 135
in gas waste management, 14, 16, 20, 196, 203-204
in high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 192-193
in molten salt oxidation, 173
in reducing gas waste volume, 102-103, 192-193, 194, 195
research needs, 203
risks of, 103
in supercritical water oxidation, 148, 190, 196 n.1
in waste gas storage, 104, 106
in wet air oxidation, 143-144, 190
Ozone, 125-126
P
Packaging. See Dunnage
Peracids, 120
Peroxydisulfates, 21, 206
in low-temperature oxidation, 10, 124, 190
mustard reactions, 120
Pesticides, 139
Phosphorous, 77, 148
Pilot plants, 89, 91t
Adams process, 180-182, 183
catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170-171
development times, 5
for high-pressure oxidation processes, 11
molten metal pyrolysis, 156
molten salt oxidation, 174
recycled flue gases in, 102-103
Pine Bluff Arsenal, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t
Plasma arc processes, 12, 17, 18, 19, 21, 191
advantages of, 160
application, 157
development status, 157
disadvantages of, 160
energy use, 92
oxygen sources for, 157
process, 156-157, 158-159f
research needs, 160
waste stream, 157-159
Poisonous substance, definition of, 37 n.2
Pollution abatement
afterburner exhaust, 2
assessment of systems for, 95
in baseline approach, 23
liquid waste in, 196
toxic air emissions, 19-20
water wastes in, 101-102
See also Waste streams/management
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 49, 114, 178
in plasma arc processes, 157
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Polyethylene glycol, 113, 114
Potassium hydroxide
in alcohol, GB reaction with, 113-114, 131
in DeChlor/KGME process, 114
in neutralization of H, 113-114
in polyethylene glycol, 113, 114
Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement, 28, 28 n.5, 31
Propellants. See Energetics
Propytene carbonate, 276
Public interest groups, 36
Public opinion
health concerns, 28 n.5
opposition to incineration, 30
Pueblo Depot, 27t, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t
Pyrolysis
steam, 29, 192
See also High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis
R
Reaction products
bioticgradation of, 126, 127, 131-132, 134-135
in chemical detoxification, 10, 20
in ethanolamine processing, 115-116
GB, 115-116, 131-132
in indirect heating, 97
in low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification, 10
in neutralization with alkali in alcohol, 113-114
in pyrolysis, 137
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 168
VX, 116, 117, 131-132
See also By-products
Recirculated flue gas, 102-103
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 81, 145
Reverse assembly, 23, 75, 77-78, 80, 94, 201
cost of, 92
cryofracture alternative, 95-96
mechanical, 96
Rocky Mountain Arsenal, 54, 55t, 56t
Rutgers University, 135
S
Safety standards
decontamination levels, 4, 82-83, 84-85
for pure oxygen use, 103
for work environments, 81
Salt wastes, 15, 99, 193-194
in biodegradation of reaction products, 135
composition of, 76
disposal of, 77
drying of, 100
heteroatoms in, 30
in hydrolysis of mustard, 118, 119
level 5X decontamination of, 195
in molten salt oxidation, 171, 173, 174
from neutralization of GB, 99, 193
shipment of, 100-101
in sodium hydroxide neutralization of GB, 112
solubility, 77, 99
source of, 98, 99
in supercritical water oxidation reactor, 149-150, 151, 152
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 168
Satin. See GB
Scientists Against Nuclear Arms, 35
(CH3CH2CH2CH2)3SnH, 122
Sodium fluoride, 99
Sodium hydroxide, 6, 99
in DS2 decontamination fluid, 114
GB and, 112-114, 186, 200
hydrogen peroxide and, 116
hydrolysis of mustard agents and, 118, 119
in VX detoxification, 116, 186
Sodium hypochlorite, HD and, 120
Sodium metal, 122
Spectrometry, agent-specific, 87
Steam gasification, 12, 17, 21
Steam pyrolysis, 29, 192
Storage
bulk liquid, 42
of chemical munitions, 42-49, 77
of contaminated carbon filter material, 108
See also Gas storage;
Storage and certification
Storage and certification, 28, 88, 195
alternatives to, 88-89
need for, 30, 103
retention times, 76, 88-89
Strategy 1, 15-17, 32-33, 197-198, 200-201, 201t
Strategy 2, 17-19, 33-34, 198-200, 201-205, 202t
Sulfur, 77
in Adams process, 180
dioxide, 175
in hydrogenation processes, 176
in supercritical water oxidation, 148
trioxide, 175
vapor, 76
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Supercritical water oxidation, 11, 16, 17-18, 21, 190-191, 203
advantages of, 151-152
as afterburner, 19
applications, 146, 148, 149, 282-285t
by-products, 151
corrosion in, 149, 150-151, 152
development status, 148-149, 202t
disadvantages of, 152
energetics in, 148, 149, 150, 152
of GB, 149, 281, 287
kinetic data, 148-149
material balance in, 281, 287
model compounds in, 286f
oxygen requirements, 102, 196 n.1
process, 146-148, 147f
properties of water in, 146, 149
reaction rate, 149, 152
reactor design, 150, 152
reactor plugging in, 148
research needs, 152
salt precipitation in, 149-150, 151, 152
waste streams in, 151
Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program, 35
Surface interface, 10
in liquid-phase detoxification of HD, 119-120, 186
Synthetica Steam Detoxifier
advantages, 168
applications, 166-167
corrosion control in, 167
disadvantages, 168
energetics in, 166-167, 169, 291
energy use in, 168, 290
GB in, 287-291
heat/material balances in, 287-291
moving bed evaporator in, 163-164, 166, 169
operational status, 166
process, 163-166, 164t
product gas in, 165-166
research needs, 168-169
test results, 166
waste streams, 167
Synthetica Technologies, Inc., 164
T
Tabun. See GA
Tetrachloride, 271
Tetraethyl lead, 178
Texas A & M University, 135
Thiodiethanol
HD converted to, 119
peracid in detoxification of, 120
Thiodiglycol, biological detoxification of, 127, 132
Titanium, 143
TMU-28/B spray tanks, 42 n.6, 47t
TNT, 114, 169-170
Tooele Army Depot, 24, 26, 27t, 42, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t, 54, 56t, 57 t, 59t
disposal schedule, 80
Toxic, definition of, 37 n.2
Toxic Substances Control Act, 26, 81
Transportation, 31
in assessing alternative technologies, 35
in baseline approach, 24
of by-product 3X salts, 100-101
in demilitarization strategy options, 15-16, 32, 33, 197
from Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System, 235-236
Treaties, 3-4, 22-23
Tributylamine, 41 n.4
Trichloroethylene, 175, 176 n.9, 178, 271
1,3,5-trimethyl benzene, 148
Tris(trimethylsilyl) silane, 122
U
Ultraviolet light, 10, 123, 124, 125-126, 190
Umatilla Depot Activity, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t
Underground combustion, 29
Unitary chemical weapons, 1 n.1, 22 n.1
United Kingdom, 69t, 70t, 71t, 113, 119
United Nations, 72t, 73t
University of Pittsburgh, 180
University of Washington (Seattle), 135
UOP HyChlor conversion process, 177f, 178
V
VX, 1, 23
biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132
chemical detoxification of, 21, 65t, 67t, 74
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chemical structure, 37, 37n.1, 38f
direct biological destruction of, 128-130, 133-134
lethal doses of, 82t
level 5X decontamination of, 263-264, 265, 266
low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification of, 6, 10, 109, 186
minimum detection limits, 233-234
moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation of, 11
nitrogen compounds in, 101
organic synthesis agents and, 121-122
oxidation agents for, in acid, 117
past disposal experiences, 59t, 60t, 62
permissible air concentrations, 82t
properties, 38, 39-40t
reaction with sodium hydroxide, 113-114, 116, 186
reactions in low pH solutions, 186
storage of, 42
toxicity of, 41, 41n.5
W
Waste streams/management, 1, 4, 13-15
in Adams process, 180, 183
assessment of, 93
in baseline technology, 2, 24
biological detoxification of, 126-127, 131, 134-135
in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170
in catalytic oxidation, 175
chemical breakdown products, 76-77
in coal gasification, 163
demilitarization strategies for, 15-19, 32-33
drying wet wastes, 4, 100
in electrochemical oxidation, 278
heteroatoms in, 30
high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation treatment for, 12-13
in hydrogenation processes, 178-179
in ionizing radiation process, 272
in low-temperature, liquid-phase processes, 10, 109, 110, 111, 190
metal wastes in, 193
in molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156
in molten salt oxidation, 173, 174
in munitions destruction, 77-78
nitrogen oxides in, 101
in peroxydisulfate salt oxidation, 10, 124
in plasma arc processes, 157-159
solid wastes, 4, 78, 82-83, 98-99, 193-194
in supercritical water oxidation, 151
in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167
water, 101-102
in wet air oxidation, 139, 144
See also Gas wastes;
Liquid wastes;
Metal parts;
Salt wastes;
Storage and certification
Water wastes, 101-102
Westinghouse plasma system, 158f
Wet air oxidation, 11, 16, 17-18, 21, 102, 190-191
addition of caustic in, 142-143
advantages of, 144
application of, 139-141
corrosion concerns in, 142-143
development status, 139
development time, 146
disadvantages of, 145
experience with, 139
of GB, 141-142, 143, 144
material balance in, 279-281
operating temperatures, 141, 142t, 143
process, 138-139, 140f
pure oxygen in, 143-144
reaction rate in, 141
reactor design, 141
research needs, 145-146
waste streams, 139, 144, 145t
Work environment, 78, 81
Worker protection, 81
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