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Index
A
Abiotic processes, 66, 285
Advection, 55, 57, 285
Advisory panels. See Expert and advisory panels
Aerobic biodegradation, 44, 285
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), 232
Air pollution, 21
Air sparging, 7, 9, 143-148, 166, 169, 170, 183, 185, 285
Alkyl benzene sulfonate, 23
Alternate concentration limits (ACL), 219
Alternative technologies, 7, 10, 11, 158
containment systems, 10, 160-162, 184, 186
energy requirements, 7, 185
limitations of, 10, 11, 186
see also In situ reactive barriers;
Intrinsic bioremediation
Alternative water supplies, 225
American Water Works Association, 23
Anaerobic biodegradation, 44, 46, 138-139, 286
Animal studies, 13, 232-233
Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements (ARARs), 215, 219, 222
Aqueous-phase transport, 48, 53-57
Aquifers, 35-36, 286
Arsenic, 26, 47, 48, 216
B
Background concentrations (cleanup goal), 13, 222
Bacteria, 44, 46, 65, 237
Barium, 26, 47
Barriers to innovation, 7, 11, 16, 168, 172, 185, 186
development phase, 172-174, 187
economic, 174, 176, 178, 180-181
implementation and procurement, 177-178
institutional, 173, 175-176, 177-178, 180
selection phase, 175-176
technical, 172-173, 175, 177, 179-180
Batch flushing model, 107-108
Benzene, 26, 50, 216.
See also BTEX
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Biodegradation, 64, 65, 90, 91-92, 286
aerobic, 44, 285
anaerobic, 44, 46, 138-139, 286
and pump-and-treat systems, 119
Biological characteristics, 44, 46
Bioremediation, 286.
See also In situ bioremediation
Biotransformation, 44, 64-66, 76, 182, 286
Bioventing, 8, 134-136, 166, 170, 187, 286
BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes), 91, 286
C
Cadmium, 26, 47, 48, 216
Canada, 173, 238
Capillary force, 63, 286
Capitalization, 11, 173, 174
Carcinogens, 215, 220, 231, 232
Categorization. See Site characterization
CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
Characterization. See Site characterization
Chemical properties, heterogeneity, 69, 71.
See also Contaminant chemistry;
Geochemical characteristics
Chlorinated solvents, 48-49, 50, 287
in situ bioremediation, 8, 132, 134, 137-141, 167, 169, 170
Chloroform, 26
Cholera, 22
Chromium, 22-23, 26, 47, 48, 216
Cleanup goals, 18, 31-32, 213-214
alternatives, 13, 219-227
and CERCLA, 214, 215-218, 219
containment, 4, 6, 13, 224-225
and costs, 31-32, 116-118, 241, 242, 243, 250
interim objectives, 13-14, 16, 248-249, 250, 268
partially restricted use, 13, 223
and RCRA, 214, 218-219
technology-based, 13, 223-224, 250
unrestricted use, 220-223
Cleanup times, 77
calculation of, 6, 104-105, 107-112, 118, 120-122
DNAPL sites, 259
pump-and-treat systems, 6, 15, 104-113, 119, 120
and site conditions, 15, 87-89, 104-107, 119, 120
sorption effects, 61-63
and system design, 6, 168, 169, 170-171
in technical impracticability determinations, 6, 15, 104, 112-113
Clean Water Act, 249
Commercialization, 11, 173, 174
Community relations
and Superfund program, 18, 271
technical issues, 18, 173, 176, 271
Complete restoration (cleanup goal), 13, 220
Complexation, 45, 287
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), 12, 22, 214, 215-218, 219, 255, 256-257, 287.
See also Superfund program
Conductivity, 38, 40, 90, 119, 290
Consolidated aquifers, 35, 36, 39
Consultants, 11, 175, 185
Containment, 15, 20, 250, 287
alternative technologies for, 10, 160-162, 184, 186
as cleanup goal, 4, 6, 13, 224-225
pump-and-treat systems used in, 98-99, 119-120
and restoration potential, 211
Contaminant chemistry, 46-47, 76-77
degradation reactions, 63-66
and ease of site cleanup, 4, 5, 6, 84-87, 262
and innovative technology effectiveness, 165-168, 186
inorganic compounds, 47, 48
migration mechanics, 49, 52-60
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organic compounds, 47-49, 50-51
retention mechanisms, 60-63
see also Dissolution;
DNAPLs;
LNAPLs;
NAPLs;
Sorption
Contingent valuation method (CVM), 245 -247
Continuous flushing model, 107-108
Contracts and contractors, 11, 175-176, 177, 180-181
Conventional pump-and-treat systems. See Pump-and-treat systems
Cooperative agreements, 179, 180, 187
Copper, 26, 47
Corrective Action Rule, 256, 272
Cosolvents, 148-149, 287
Costs. See Economic barriers to innovation;
Economics of cleanup
Cuyahoga River, 21
D
Darcy's Law, 39-40, 288
Data collection and needs, 75, 115-116, 198-200, 211, 257
extent of contamination, 115, 201-202, 212
hydrogeology, 73, 206
restoration potential, 206-208
site characterization, 15, 175, 198-208, 211-212, 269-270
site info repository, 15, 269-270
source area location, 202-206
toxicity, 229-230, 233, 235
Dayton, N.J., 96-97
DDT, 216
Degradation reactions, 63-64, 66, 90.
See also Biodegradation
Denitrification, 46, 288
Density, 58, 288
Department of Defense (DOD), 11, 27, 172, 181
Department of Energy (DOE), 11, 26, 28, 172, 181, 187
Desorption, 7, 45, 288
thermal, 9, 167, 171
Detection limits (cleanup goal), 13, 222
Development of innovative technologies, 172-174, 181-184, 187, 196
and infeasibility fee, 263-264, 270-271
Dissolution, 7, 45, 119, 288
of inorganics, 47, 48
DNAPLs (denser-than-water nonaqueous-phase liquids), 2-3, 49, 86, 118, 288
EPA policies, 256, 258-259
in heterogenous settings, 96-97, 98-99, 100, 102
migration of, 49, 52-53, 59, 103, 204-205
plumes, 53, 258
pool formation, 53, 111, 112, 203-204
Dose-response evaluation, 233-234
Drinking water standards, 12-13, 19, 32, 215, 216, 219, 250
E
Early action policies, 16, 257-258, 271-272
Ecological risks, 236-239, 250
Economic barriers to innovation, 7, 11, 16, 180-181, 186
development phase, 174
implementation and procurement, 178
selection phase, 176
Economics of cleanup, 2, 239, 250
benefits estimation, 13, 245-248, 250-251
innovative technologies, 7, 11, 185
national costs, 2, 28-29, 239-241, 250-251
and nonattainment of cleanup goals, 18, 19-20
and site characterization, 2, 11-12, 73, 250, 269
site-level costs, 28, 33n:3, 116-118, 241-245, 250
see also Economic barriers to innovation
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Education and training
of public, 18, 173, 176, 271
of scientists, 23-24
of technical personnel, 184-185
Electro-osmotic purging, 184
Elkhart, Ind., 225, 226
Enhanced pump-and-treat systems, 7, 8-9, 126-127, 185
limitations of, 7, 8-9, 185
see also Air sparging;
Bioventing;
In situ bioremediation;
In situ chemical treatment;
In situ thermal technologies;
Pulsed pumping;
Soil flushing;
Soil vapor extraction
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 22, 256, 257
community relations activities, 18, 271
DNAPL policies, 256, 258-259
early action policies, 16, 257-258, 271-272
evaluation of cleanup activities, 14-15, 266, 270
expert panels use, 17, 266-267
and innovative technologies, 11, 172, 187
long-term exposure prevention strategies, 16, 272
site data repository, 15, 269-270
site-level guidance, 17-18, 265-266
SITE program, 179, 187
technical impracticability policy, 15, 259, 260-263, 268-269
Technology Innovation Office (TIO), 180, 187
Epidemiological studies, 13, 228-232
limitations of, 13, 228-230, 236
Ethylbenzene, 26, 216.
See also BTEX
Expenditures. See Economics of cleanup
Expert and advisory panels
innovative technology approval, 17, 264, 271
for site and remedy evaluation, 17, 266-267, 269
Exposure identification, 234, 235
F
Fairchild Semiconductor Corp., San Jose, Calif., 98-99
Feasibility studies, 132, 174, 269, 289
Federal government, 27, 173
and innovative technology, 177-178, 187
technical expertise of regulatory staff, 17, 269
see also Department of Defense;
Department of Energy;
Environmental Protection Agency
Fick's law, 120-121
Field tests, 181-182
Firestone Tire and Rubber Co., Salinas, Calif., 94-95
Flow nets, 41
Flow of ground water, 39-40, 115
effects of pumping, 31, 40, 41
see also Migration pathways
Fractured media, 39, 100, 119, 289
G
Gasoline, 2, 4, 47, 51, 93, 165
biodegradability of, 4, 93, 119
Geochemical characteristics, 40, 44, 45
hydrogeochemical cycle, 42-44
and reaction rates and pathways, 75-76
Goals. See Cleanup goals
Gradients. See Hydraulic properties, gradients
Guidance documents, 256, 257, 269
on DNAPLs, 258, 259
on technical impracticability waivers, 260
H
Hardeman County, Tenn., 230-231
Hazard identification, 233, 235
Health-based cleanup goals, 7, 13, 215, 222-223
and attainment feasibility categories, 14, 15-16, 261-263, 268
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pump-and-treat systems capabilities, 15, 103, 119
waivers, 219, 260
Health risks, 1-2, 250
animal studies, 13, 232-233
assessment and evaluation, 13, 227, 233-236, 250
epidemiological studies, 13, 228-232
see also Health-based cleanup goals
Henry's Law constant, 50-51, 57, 90, 289-290
Heterogeneity, 2, 67-69, 76, 206, 290
chemical, 69, 71
and cleanup times, 106, 109-110, 119, 120
and contaminant fate and transport, 73-75
Horizontal wells, 145-146, 185, 290
Hydraulic barriers, 120, 290
Hydraulic containment. See Containment
Hydraulic properties, 37-39
conductivity, 38, 40, 90, 119, 290
gradients, 38, 290
Hydrocarbons, in situ bioremediation, 7, 8, 131-134.
See also Petroleum
products and derivatives;
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrodynamic dispersion, 55, 56
Hydrogeochemical cycle, 42-44
Hydrogeology, 12, 206
and ease of site cleanup, 4, 5, 6, 84-87, 262
see also Heterogeneity
Hyporheic zones, 237
I
IBM Corp., 96-97, 102
Implementation phases, 177-178
Indemnification, 177-178
Innovative technologies, 7, 11, 16, 125-126
combinations of processes, 164, 165, 186
costs, 7, 11, 185
development, 172-174, 181-184, 186, 187, 263-264
evaluation and monitoring, 186
failure of, 11, 175-176, 186, 264, 271
implementation and procurement, 177-178, 186
selection, 174-176
and site conditions, 164-168, 169, 170-171, 186
testing, 11, 17, 186
see also Alternative technologies;
Barriers to innovation;
Enhanced pump-and-treat systems
Inorganic compounds, 47, 48, 184.
See also Metals
In situ bioremediation, 182-183, 185
of chlorinated solvents, 8, 132, 134, 137-141, 167, 169, 170
of hydrocarbons, 7, 8, 131-134, 165, 166, 169, 170
intrinsic, 10, 158-160, 167, 169, 171, 182, 186
of metals, 9, 141-143, 167, 169, 171
In situ chemical treatment, 9, 76, 151-152, 185
oxidation, 167, 171
In situ reactive barriers, 10, 162-164, 167, 169, 186
In situ thermal technologies, 185
desorption, 9, 167, 171
radio frequency heating, 9, 153, 157-158
steam-enhanced extraction, 9, 153, 154-156
vitrification, 153, 160, 290
Institutional barriers to innovation, 7, 11, 16, 180, 186
development phase, 173
implementation and procurement, 177-178
selection phase, 175-176
Institutional structures, long-term exposure prevention, 16, 267, 272
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Insurance coverage, 176
Interdisciplinary educational programs, 184-185
Interfacial tension, 59-60, 290
Interim cleanup objectives, 13-14, 16, 248-249, 250, 268
for technical impracticability waivers, 260, 261, 268
Intrinsic bioremediation, 10, 158-160, 167, 169, 171, 182, 186
Ion exchange, 45, 60, 291
Iron reduction, 46
K
Karst systems, 237
King of Prussia, Pa., 100
L
Landfills, 24, 47, 238
Latency periods (diseases), 228
Leachates, 48, 107, 291
Lead, 26, 47, 48
Leaking storage containers, 24, 26, 28, 33, 47, 48
Lenses (geologic deposits), 69, 119, 291
and cleanup times, 109-110, 120-121
Liability issues, 11, 175-176
LNAPLs (less-dense-than-water nonaqueous-phase liquids), 2, 49, 53 , 54, 86, 291
Long Island, N.Y., 165
Long-term site management, 16, 267, 272
Love Canal incident, 21, 22, 227
M
Management options, 197-198
Manganese, 26, 47
Maps, 73
Maxiumum contaminant levels (MCLs), 32, 215, 216, 218, 292
Melting points, 49, 50-51
Mercury, 66
Metals, 48, 184
in situ bioremediation of, 9, 141-143, 167, 169, 171
Methanogenesis, 46, 292
Methanotrophic bacteria, 137-138, 292
Methylene chloride, 26
Micelles, 149-150, 292
Microbes, 44, 46, 64, 66, 182
in ground water, 236-237
growth stimulating materials, 44, 182, 183
see also Biodegradation;
Biotransformation;
In situ bioremediation
Migration pathways, 2, 12, 46-47, 49, 52-54
aqueous-phase transport, 48, 53-57
NAPL transport, 48, 49, 52-54, 58-60, 69, 73, 76-77
vapor-phase transport, 57-58
Models and modeling, 75, 286, 292, 293
air flows, 183
cleanup times, 107-109
transport and fate, 76
Moffett Air Force Base, Calif., 173
Molecular diffusion, 3, 55, 57, 288
Monitoring of cleanup, 114, 115-116, 186, 272
and treatment system modification, 116-118, 120
Monitoring wells, 119, 292
N
NAPLs (nonaqueous-phase liquids), 2-3, 8, 48-49, 76-77, 86, 111, 118, 185, 203, 292
and cleanup times, 107, 111, 119, 120, 121
entrapment, 63, 73, 119
residual, 111
transport, 48, 49, 52-54, 58-60, 69, 73, 76-77
see also DNAPLs;
LNAPLs
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
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Contingency Plan (NCP), 215, 235, 256, 292-293
Niagara Falls, N.Y., 21, 22, 238
Nickel, 26, 47
Nonaqueous-phase liquids. See DNAPLs;
LNAPLs;
NAPLs
Nondegradation. See Background concentrations
O
Organic compounds, 47-49, 50-51
biodegradation of, 55, 64, 65
Oxidation reactions, 45, 293
inorganics, 47, 48
P
PAHs. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Partially restricted use standards, 13, 223
Partitioning, 118, 293
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
Permits, 256
Pesticides, 24, 46, 51
Petroleum products and derivatives, 48, 49, 51
bioventing, 8, 134
in situ bioremediation, 7, 8, 10, 132
see also Gasoline
Phenol, 26, 50, 132
Phthalates, 46
Physical characteristics, 35-40, 73
ground water flow, 39-40
hydraulic properties, 37-39
see also Heterogeneity;
Hydrogeology
Pilot tests and prototypes, 186, 207-208, 211-212
of early action programs, 257-258, 272
of infeasibility fee, 263-264
Plants and vegetation, 237-238
Plumes, 15, 57, 71-72, 120, 168, 169, 195-197, 211, 293-294
DNAPL, 53, 258
ecological effects, 250
reemergence and persistence of, 94, 96-97, 102, 116
Point-of-use treatment, 13, 225, 226
Policy formation and issues, 14, 248, 250, 255-257
early action policies, 16, 257-258, 271-272
implementation, 265-267
interagency consistency in application, 265, 268-269
statements, 256
see also Cleanup goals;
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980;
rinking water standards;
Regulation;
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 46, 48, 51, 216, 294
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 46, 48, 49, 50, 216, 294
Pore volumes, 107, 112-113, 114, 118, 120, 294
Pores, 36, 294
Porosity, 38, 294
Precipitation, of metals, 42, 45, 76
Procurement processes, 177-178
Public health. See Health-based cleanup goals;
Health risks
Public relations. See Community relations
Pulsed pumping, 8, 136-137, 185, 294
Pump-and-treat systems, 1, 7, 29, 30, 80-82, 166, 287
appropriate uses, 100, 104
cleanup times, 6, 15, 104-113, 119, 120
effects on ground water flows, 31, 40, 41
enhanced, 7, 8-9, 126-127, 185
evaluation and monitoring, 14-15, 29, 31, 80-81, 82-84, 113, 115-118 , 119, 120, 266
factors affecting performance, 4, 6, 15, 84-89, 119-120
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and failure of innovative systems, 11, 264
limitations of, 1, 3, 7, 15, 102
modification of, 116-118, 120
pulsed, 8, 136-137, 185, 294
use in containment, 98-99, 119-120
R
Radio frequency heating, 9, 153, 157-158
RCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Reaction pathways and rates, 75-76
Reactive barriers. See In situ reactive barriers
Records of Decision, 174, 177, 294
Redox potential, 76, 294-295
Reduction reactions, 45, 295
Regulation, 14, 18
guidance documents, 256, 257, 269
of innovative technology, 11, 177-178
interagency consistency in application, 265, 268-269
monitoring and evaluation, 119
technical expertise of staff, 11, 17, 175, 265
see also Cleanup goals;
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980;
Drinking water standards;
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Remedial action plans, 177, 295
Remedial investigations (RI), 73, 259, 269, 295
Research programs and needs
contaminant distribution and transport, 73-75
historical, 22-24
infeasibility fee funding for, 263-264, 270-271
innovative technologies, 181-184, 264
pump-and treat-systems, 118
reaction pathways and rates, 75-76
site characterization, 210-211, 212
subsurface characteristics, 72-73
Residence time, 42, 44, 295
Residual contamination, 53, 63, 111, 169, 170-171, 295
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 12, 22, 33, 214, 216 , 218-219, 255, 256-257, 272, 295
site characterization guidelines, 18, 269
Restoration potential, 18, 206-208, 211
Restricted use, 224-225.
See also Partially restricted use standards
Retardation, 61, 90, 295
Retention mechanisms, 60
NAPL entrapment, 63, 73, 119
sorption, 60-63, 119
Risk assessments, 233-236, 296
Risk characterization, 234, 235
S
Safe Drinking Water Act, 33, 173, 296
Salinas, California, 94-95
Sampling and sampling methods, 73, 115, 259
San Jose, California, 98-99, 102
Saturated zone, 36, 55, 296
Savannah River (DOE) site, 237
Selection processes
data requirements, 211, 259
innovative technologies, 174-176
Service stations, 4, 91, 93, 165
Sewage, 22
Site characterization, 11-12, 17, 193-195, 211, 296
data needs, 15, 175, 198-208, 211-212, 269-270
ease-of-cleanup categories, 4-6, 15-16, 17, 84-86, 89-99, 100, 104 , 261-263, 268
EPA guidance, 17-18, 265-266
and management, 197-198, 208, 210
plume versus source area, 195-197, 211
stages, 208-210
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studies and evaluations, 12, 17, 73
see also Biological characteristics;
Contaminant chemistry;
Geochemical characteristics;
Hydrogeology;
Physical characteristics
Small Business Technology Transfer Program, 181
Soil flushing, 9, 148-151, 167, 171, 183, 185, 296
Soil vapor extraction (SVE), 7, 8, 127-131, 165, 170, 183, 185
Solvents, 48, 94-95.
See also Chlorinated solvents;
Cosolvents;
Trichloroethylene
Sorption, 3, 45, 60-63, 62, 76, 119, 185, 296
and cleanup times, 107, 119, 120
Source areas, 15, 71-72, 195-197, 202-206, 211, 296
Source control and remediation, 170-171, 296
Sources of contamination, 24, 120, 296-297
South Macomb Disposal Superfund site, Mich., 238
Spatial variability, 66
in contaminant sources, 71-72
see also Heterogeneity
Standards. See Cleanup goals;
Drinking water standards
State regulation, 22, 27, 216, 256
and interagency consistency of application, 265
technical expertise of agency staff, 17, 269
Steam-enhanced extraction, 9, 153, 154-156
Steam stripping, 167, 171, 297
Storage coefficient, 38, 297
Sulfate reduction, 46, 297
Superfund program, 22, 28, 174, 238, 239
Accelerated Cleanup Model, 257
DNAPL sites, 260
site characterization guidelines, 18, 269
site data collection, 270
see also Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
Surface water, 21, 238
Surfactants, 149, 297
T
Tailing, 61, 87, 88, 297
Technical barriers to innovation, 7, 11, 16, 179-180, 186
development phase, 172-173
implementation and procurement, 177
selection phase, 175
Technical infeasibility determinations, 15, 259, 260-263, 268-269
and community relations, 18, 271
fees under, 263-264, 269, 270-271
use of estimated cleanup times, 6, 15, 104, 112-113
Technology transfer, 173, 181
Technology-based cleanup standards, 13, 223-224, 250
Testing. See Field tests;
Pilot tests and prototypes;
Sampling and sampling methods
Tetrachloroethylene, 26, 48-49, 50
Time periods. See Cleanup times;
Latency periods;
Long-term site management;
Residence time
Toluene, 26, 50.
See also BTEX
Toxicity of contaminants, 47
data needs and evaluation, 229-230, 233, 235
Training. See Education and training
Transport systems. See Migration pathways
Treatment trains, 164, 165, 186, 297
Trichloroethylene (TCE), 3, 26, 48, 50, 109-110, 120-121, 151, 216 , 218
Typhoid, 22
Tyson's Dump, King of Prussia, Pa., 100, 101
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U
Unconsolidated aquifers, 36, 39
Unrestricted use goals, 220-223
Unsaturated zone, 36, 55, 297
V
Vacuum extraction, 164, 166, 298
Vadose zone, 36, 298
Vapor extraction. See Soil vapor extraction
Vapor-phase transport, 57-58
Variable pumping, 8, 136
Ville Mercier, Quebec Province, 103
Vinyl chloride, 26
Viscosity, 58-59, 298
Viscous fingering, 59
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 46, 48, 90, 128, 298
Volatilization, 53, 57, 183, 185, 298
W
Waste sites, 1, 24, 26-29, 33, 47
Waterloo Centre for Ground Water Research, Canada, 173
Weapons, 26, 27
Wellhead treatment, 225, 298
Wetlands, 237-238
X
Xylenes, 26, 50, 216.
see also BTEX
Z
Zinc, 26, 47
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Other Recent Reports Of The Water Science And Technology Board
In Situ Bioremediation: When Does It Work? (1993)
Ground Water Vulnerability Assessment: Predicting Relative Contamination Potential Under Conditions of Uncertainty (1993)
Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas (1993)
Sustaining Our Water Resources: Proceedings, WSTB Symposium (1993)
Water Transfers in the West: Efficiency, Equity, and the Environment (1992)
Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy (1992)
Toward Sustainability: Soil and Water Research Priorities for Developing Countries (1991)
Preparing for the Twenty-First Century: A Report to the USGS Water Resources Division (1991)
Opportunities in the Hydrologic Sciences (1991)
A Review of the USGS National Water Quality Assessment Pilot Program (1990)
Ground Water and Soil Contamination Remediation: Toward Compatible Science, Policy, and Public Perception (1990)
Managing Coastal Erosion (1990)
Ground Water Models: Scientific and Regulatory Applications (1990)
Irrigation-Induced Water Quality Problems (1989)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academy Press (800) 624-6242
