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OCR for page 369
s
Effects
INTRODUCTION
A vast amount of data and literature has accumulated s ince the 1975 NRC
report. Much of this accumulation has been brought together at confer-
ences (e.g ., Amer loan Petroleum Institute, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1981;
Wolfe, 1977), at specialized symposia (American Institute of Biological
Sciences, 1976, 1978; Fisheries Research Board, 1978; Cowan et al.,
1981), and in two major reviews (Malins, 1977; Sprague et al. , 1981~ .
This has come about in response to increased funding since the ear ly
1970s, partly due to increasing human concerns over oil in the marine
environment, and partly as a natural outcome of continued spills and
accidental discharges. One interesting and encouraging development has
been a noticeable change in research emphasis, from descriptive to more
process-or tented research, as in studies of physiological impact and
ecological change (Table 5-1~. During the early days of oil pollution
research following the Torrey Canyon accident, most research was aimed
at quantifying toxicity thresholds. At the same time there was little
scientific consistency, in that researchers developed their own
exposure methodology and analytical preferences. AS a result,
intercomparison of laboratory data was difficult.
This began to change in the mid-1970s with a redirection of
research interest toward understanding the mechanisms of hydrocarbon
toxicity and the sites of toxic action. This effort was paralleled by
concerted efforts of var. ious workers to standardize analytical methods,
using certain reference oils set aside by the Amer ican Petroleum
Institute (API). As a result, more meaning and comparability have come
into the f ield of toxic e f feats of petroleum, and a type of data is
being produced with which many members of the scientific community can
agree upon (Rice et al., 19771. This change in emphasis in recent
years represents a significant advancement since the 1975 NRC report.
The f ield of oil pollution impact presents unusual and ma jor
difficulties to the researcher in that at virtually every turn of study
new techniques and analytical and sampling methods have to be devised.
This is due to the newness of this research area, having come into its
own only since 1967 with the breakup of the Torrey Canyon. Prior to
that event most of the research interest with respect to petroleum
concerned its physicochemical aspects, and the analytical methods arid
369
OCR for page 370
370
TABLE 5-1 emphasis of Oil-Pollution-Related Study Reports for the
Temperate and Nor thern Mar ine Environment Between 1967 and 1977
Bnphas is
Pre-1974 Post-1974
1. Oil--physical-chemical changes,
fate and distr ibution,
env ironmental concentr ations
2 . Gross biological ef feats:
mortality, toxicity
Physiological, developmental,
and ecological change
Microbiology: hydrocarbon-
utiliz ing banter ia
35% (83) 33% (107)
4396 (100) 31% (99)
6% (15) 2296 (70)
16% (37) 14% (44)
NOTE: Numbers in parentheses denote number of studies.
SOURCE: Environmental Protection Agency (1977 ~ .
expertise reflected these interests. However, with the Torrey Canyon a
new scientific discipline was required, including an understanding of
the behavior of oil in water, sediment, and even in tissues, and requir-
ing analytical methods capable of resolving petrogenic compounds in
unfamiliar environmental samples . This has called for a much mor e
interdisciplinary approach, with constant and new exchange of expertise
__A .A~_~ Ion_ "~ ha: `:£~_~. A.~.~1 ;~e.
~ ~ , ~ _, _ _ _ _
I -I I ~ ~- - - ~ - ~ - ~ -~~ - =- -..-- ~ Sc ientis ts in th is f ield
are often competent in several areas, combining organic chemistry with
biochemistry or biology, and often a more than passing acquaintance
with microbiology or geology. Environmental teams of scientists have
developed, working with integrated effort.
This is not to say that the problem of understanding oil pollution
in the mar ine environment is now well in hand . Ma jor inroads have been
made in analytical capabilities and in understanding petroleum effects
on two levels--physiological and ecological. However, generally there
is a good appreciation of oil effects in temperate and northern
temperate waters. At the same time the area of subcellular effects has
received less attention.
Ecological studies have been done pr imar fly in the field, using
spills of opportunity and, more recently, large f ield enclosures
(mesocosms) with known dosages of oil. At spills of opportunity,
studies have been done mainly in the soft sediment areas such as salt
marshes and shallow embayments. Such areas have been documented as
sites where spilled oil will persist for long periods (years to
OCR for page 371
371
decades) (see Chapter 3) and have provided the basis for most of what
is known about how oil affects on mar ine populations and communities .
The mesocosm studies have provided exper imental evidence of similar
perturbations occurring in planktonic and benthic communities.
Investigation into the physiological (e.g., photosynthesis,
respiration, growth, neurotransmission) effects of oil is largely
through laboratory investigations, although some fundamental work has
been done in the field. One reason for the laboratory emphasis is the
need to control experimental conditions. The coverage of this level of
investigation has been uneven. AS in mammalian physiology, there are
preferred invertebrate and algal species. Certain bivalves (Mya
arenaria, Mytilus sp., Macoma spp.) and crustaceans (Cancer spp., Uca
pugnax' Crampon spp., Penaeus aztecus) J by virtue of their accessibil-
ity and ease of culture, are far easier to work with than benthic or
pelagic organisms available only seasonally and/or by dredging or
trawling. The same thing holds for the marine algae. It seems prefer-
able, however, to attempt to understand in good detail the toxicology
of petroleum in two or three well-studied representative organisms,
rather than to attempt to establish simple toxic tolerance levels
across all the phyla. (Although it should be noted that some of these
may not be the most vulnerable.)
Study at the subcellular level has received far less attention,
despite recent concerns over certain hydrocarbons interacting with
cellular macromolecules such as nucleic acids.
We discuss primarily the impact of petroleum hydrocarbons, leaving
the possible impact of other contaminants or compounds--either
contained in oil or in some manner by-products of petroleum- or
gas-related activities--to other more specialized discussions. Such
contaminants would include, for example, trace metals, chemical
dispersants, and drilling muds. Again, the available literature on
petroleum impact alone is so vast that to include detailed discussions
on these other materials, beyond merely mentioning them, would
inevitably lead to an unmanageable exercise.
The approach taken in this chapter is to discuss and review the
impact of petroleum on marine biota and communities, by proceeding from
one level ho the next--from effects on processes (cellular), through a
discussion of effects on the marine foodchain (organismic), to the
effects on communities (ecosystem). Inevitably this leads to some
repetition or duplication, but this approach makes the most sense in
unravelling and describing an extremely complex problem, involving a
complex pollutant and the complexities of marine life. We hope that
the index to this report will aid the reader in finding his or her way
through it.
Inevitably in a task such as this, some studies and reports will
not have been referenced in the writing of this chapter because of the
limited space available. Throughout we tried to refer to those studies
that illustrated a particular point or aspect of petroleum pollution
most aptly or most concisely. In other instances we referenced those
studies that would lead the interested reader in turn to other studies.
In an appendix to this chapter we have included a discussion of
some well-known oil spills and oil seep problems, largely to add some
OCR for page 372
372
real dimensions to the at times very detailed discussions in the main
body of the chapter. The examples were selected for their general
appropriateness and because they represented in each instance a
particular spill type under certain conditions.
Finally, any report tries to be up to date in its coverage, but
inevitably there has to be a cut-off date. For various reasons,
editor ial and technical, the review process for this chapter was very
lengthy. We have tried to maintain as current a reference list as
possible, but have not been able to go much beyond 1982-1983. We
regret therefore having missed much excellent new literature and newer
findings published in the last year.
Toxicity
In its most general sense, toxicity can be defined as the imparting of
a deleterious effect, whether lethal or sublethal, to an organism,
population, or community. The toxic effect can result in a permanent
perturbation or change, for example, the crooked-back syndrome in
larval fish, stunted growth, deformed shell formation in mollusks, and
changed population patterns. However, not all effects are disruptive,
and there exist adaptive mechanisms, both at the cellular level (e.g.,
detoxifying enzyme systems) and at the population and community levels
(Capuzzo, 1981~.
Toxic effects from petroleum exposure vary widely and for reasons
that are not well understood. Certainly these have to do with the
complexity of its chemical composition, with different products or even
crude oils differing markedly in their chemical makeup. Another factor
is the var lability in sensitivity to oil found among mar ine organisms,
differing not only with the species (Figure 5-1) but even for life-
cycle stages (Figure 5-21. While it is generally true that the younger
stages of organisms are more sensitive to petroleum hydrocarbons, there
are exceptions. Unfortunately, not many studies have compared the
sensitivity of organisms at various life stages under identical experi-
mental conditions for any one species.
While the absolute toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons appears to be
greater for the higher-molecular-weight compounds (for example, 3- and
4-ring aromatics), most of the toxic effect of petroleum in water is
thought to be due to the lower-molecular-weight (C12-C24) e-paraffin
compounds and to the monoaromatic fraction, for the simple reason that
these compounds are the most water-soluble (Chapter 3, Table 3-4~.
From examinations of the concentrations present in water-soluble
fractions (WSF), it is clear that the contribution of compounds higher
in molecular weight than the alkyloaphthalenes is very small and may be
insignif icant in terms of producing acute toxicity.
Bioassay tests have been used to a considerable extent to determine
the toxicities of var ious crude oils and of refined products. Most of
these tests have used mortality as the index of toxicity, expressed for
example, as LC5g (the lethal concentration yielding 50% mortality
over pre-determ~ned exposure time, for example, 24, 48, or 96 hours).
In practice, however, their usefulness as a research technique is
OCR for page 373
PR]
26
24
22
20
18
~ 16
IS 14
t`' 1 2
8
4
3
3
373
3
n
I Crago
2 Neanthes
3 Cancer
4 Salmon fry
5 Cyprinodon
6 Copepod
7 Palaemonetes
8 Amphipod
9 Striped bass
10 Penaeus aztecus
11 Grass shrimp
· 24 hour LC50
5
~ ~ -I - - ~ Jo ; ~ '' '''aft " ·~1~111151 ' Ill~llllt~ly ~J ~ ~ 7~ _~ n
,~e, ~ 0~ ~ ~ ~ `~ AQUA O`~ Opt O`= 6~ O'er ~ O~
10
~ ~ it_ ~~s
Cal
FIGURE5-1 Acute toxicity (24- and 96-hour LC50 static tests ~ of
some aromatic hydrocarbons for selected mar ine macroinver tebrates and
fish.
SOURCES: Caldwell et al. (1977), Benville and Korn (1977), Neff et al.
(1976), R.E. Thomas and Rice (1979), Young (1977), Rossi and Neff
(1978), Ott et al. (1978), and W.Y. Lee and Nicol (1978).
OCR for page 374
374
A;
~ I:
, ~
~ ~ At.
FIGURE S-2 Effects of oiling on f ine structure of surf smelt embryo
retinas. (Left) Retinal cells of an unoiled embryo (x5000~. Inset is
enlargement of a synaptic junction X18,000. {Right) Retina' cells of
an embryo exposed to 113 ppb Cook Inlet crude oil (xSOOO). vesiculation
is evident in the myoid regions (asterisk) of the receptor cells. Note
also necrotic neurons (arrows). Synaptic junction (viz., inset,
x18 '000) appears normal. Ellipsoid region (e) of inner segment of
receptor cell' nucleus {m) of receptor cell' outer segment (o) of
receptor cell, and synaptic (s) junctional complex are indicated on
figure. (Photo by J. Hawkes.)
limited in that they provide no data except on mortality. Toxicity
tests are subject to several variables such as complex mixture of the
oil, test parameters, and various biological factors such as age, sex,
and contamination history of the organism. For these reasons they are
somewhat imprecise measures of toxicity, and many researchers feel that
their output, the LC50, has little relevance to what may happen to an
organism as a result of a spill. By its very nature the LC50 gives
no indication of sublethal toxic problems that the organism may be
experiencing, and gives no measure of any long term impacts that may be
occurring, measuring only the death of the organism. Instead, acute
lethal bioassays serve best as tests to compare the relative toxicities
of complex, unknown toxicants, or the comparison of relative
sensitivities of species or life stages.
OCR for page 375
375
Laboratory Versus Field Studies
Most studies of effects have been developed in the laboratory for the
simple reason that field studies often depend on spills of opportunity,
which are highly unpredictable . ALSO, f ield studies are often expen-
sive and difficult to carry out. On the other hand, laboratory studies
have frequently been criticized because experimental conditions do not
simulate field conditions. Also, concentrations of oil or hydrocarbons
frequently exceed those encountered in the field.
Both criticisms are probably correct. However, in recent years
attempts have been made to bring laboratory conditions closer to field
conditions by simulating the hydrocarbon composition and concentrations
more closely through the use of flow-through systems and by careful
management of the test organisms chosen. Most promising in this respect
have been various studies carried out in "mesocosms," large enclosures
that allow control of some environmental variables under near-open ocean
conditions (for example, Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory (MERL),
CEPEX, Loch Ewe, viz., Table 5-~. In this respect, natural oil seeps
also offer certain opportunities to study the impact of petroleum under
more open-ocean conditions.
As for the criticism of high experimental dosages, there are
situations where seemingly high concentrations of oil or hydrocarbon
are warranted, for example, in the initial establishment or detection
of certain toxic effects and in the analysis of metabolic pathways.
High initial concentrations of toxicants are frequently necessary to
establish a toxic effect that otherwise might be indistinguishable from
the background "noises or masked by other changes. Using high concen-
trations allows the experimenter to better define the toxic effect or
response. Again, the detection and identification of primary or
secondary metabolites, or of short-lived intermediates, often requir e
unusually large doses of toxicant. In these instances the object is
not so much to determine a toxic effect, as it is to better understand
certain aspects of hydrocarbon metabolism for which low dosages would
not elicit a measurable response. However, care has to be taken in
,
work ing with h igh dosages and in interpreting results because of the
possibility that extraordinary metabolic pathways may be expressed.
In the end, both laboratory and field study have merit. Although
field studies are fraught with uncontrolled and interfering factors,
they nonetheless are the ultimate testing ground. For that reason,
spill sites should be visited, and revisited, whenever possible. On the
other hand, laboratory studies support field studies by providing the
opportunity to investigate an effect in detail and to study its under-
lying mechanism.
Factors Affecting Impact of Oil
When an oil spill occurs, many factors determine whether that spill
will cause heavy, long lasting biological damage; comparatively little
or no damage; or some intermediate degree of damage. An example of the
variability that exists among the effects of oil spills on the mar ine
OCR for page 376
376
biota is outlined by C.T. Mitchell et al. (1970) in their description
of the widely different effects resulting from the Tampico Maru and the
Santa Barbara oil spills. Nonetheless, there are some patterns begin-
ning to emerge that are useful in identifying those physical and
biological features that can influence the ultimate impact of a spill
or chronic pollution (e.g. , Michael et al. , 1978; Gundlach and Hayes,
1978; Owens and Robilliard, 1981; Vandermeulen, 1977, 1982) .
Geographic Location
In many reports, organisms from any one geographic location are
apparently no different from any other location in terms of their
vulnerability to petroleum hydrocarbons. While there are of course
species-specific genetic differences, arctic fish or invertebrates do
not appear to differ physiologically from similar organisms at lower or
tropical latitudes in terms of lethal toxic concentration thresholds or
toxic r esponses .
However, there are a number of physical features related to geo-
graphic location--mainly temperature and ice cover, together with
differences in community diversity, which is latitude dependent--that
will influence both impact and biolog i Cal recovery. Temperature, for
example, plays a significant role in the solubility of hydrocarbons in
the water column and in the rate of their degradation through microbial
activity.
Similarly, community diversity at different latitudes (low diversity
in polar regions, high diversity in tropical environments) can lead to
differences in both times and patterns of biological recovery following
an oil impact.
Oil Dosage and Impact Area
If the spill occurs in a small, confined area so that the oil is unable
to escape, damage will be greater, almost without exception, for a given
volume and type of oil spilled than if that same volume were released
in a relatively open area. For example, at the Arrow spill site in
Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, about 2.5 million gallons of Bunker C fuel
were spilled in an embayment, whereas the Argo Merchant spilled about
7.7 million gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into the open ocean of f Nantucket
Island, Massachusetts. Although a considerable amount of Arrow spill
eventually was swept out to sea, the confined nature of the oil during
the first days resulted in nearly uniform oiling of the entire bay
coastline and in considerable damage to the associated fauna and flora.
However, this generalization is not inflexible. The spill of the super-
tanker Amoco Cadiz occurred offshore, but prevailing winds were such
that the oil was kept near shore of North Brittany for several weeks and
continuously driven onto shore. Similarly, there are differences
resulting from the manner of the spillage--whether low level but chronic
or consisting of a sudden accidental release. The former is covered in
greater detail elsewhere (for example, see Chronic Oiling section), but
OCR for page 377
377
generally the impact from such chronic releases differs both in sever ity
and in k ind from accidental spills, where the spilled oil will eventu-
ally disappear with time due to physical-chemical processes and micro-
b ial and other biological degradation . On the other hand, in the case
of chronic releases the spilled oil becomes a continuing irr itant or
toxicant to which the community must adjust, for example, in selection
for hydrocarbon-utiliz ing species .
Oceanograph ic Conditions
Currents, sea state, coastal topography, and tidal action all combine
to influence the impact of a given spill. Currents and wave action--in
open water or open bays--act to break up the oil into smaller slicks,
and also act to disperse some of the oil into the water column. In
areas of large tidal ranges the oil can become distr ibuted over a broad
range of the intertidal zone, arid can be deposited far above the high
tide mark by extreme "spr ing" tides coinciding with high winds and
strong tidal flow .
Coastal topography plays a large role in the residual impact of a
spill, with low energy environments (salt marshes, lagoons, estuaries,
embayments) acting as long term hydrocarbon "sinks." Impact on biota
in such systems is usually long lasting.
Meteorological Conditions
Normally, storms increase wave action and wind speed and thereby aid in
evaporation of the lower-molecular-weight, more volatile toxic compo-
nents . On occasion, however, wave action may intensify the problems,
as apparently occurred at ache Flor Ida No. 2 fuel oil spill near West
Falmouth. Soon after this spill, the surf drove the oil ashore into
the sediments and the surrounding marshland (Sanders, 1978) . The oiled
marshland and sediments then became a long term reservoir of oil with
persistence in some areas to this day. A1SO storm-induced resuspension
of subtidal sediments probably brought these sediments into contact
with oil from more intertidal areas. Similar events occurred following
the breakup of the Amoco Cadiz, where the winter storms drove the oil
deep inland up the nearby estuar ine tidal r ivers (Hess, 1978 ~ .
Season
Season is particularly important in terms of the biota that might lie
in the path of a spill or in the vicinity of a chronic oiling s~tua-
tion. For example, if a spill occurs in an area where seabirds are
feeding or nesting, bird mortality might be in the thousands; at some
other time of the year the mortality might be much lower. Similarly
the coincidence of a spill with f ish spawning events or hatching and
development of larval f ish migration might result in higher than normal
larval mar tall ties .
OCR for page 378
378
Seasonal changes in the phys decal parameter s of the mar ine environ-
ment might also influence the potential impact of a spill, as for
example, seasonally timed changes in local circulation patterns that
might lead to local containment of slicks.
Oil Type
Oil type determines both the short term and the long term impact.
Immediate impact can be very high from such highly toxic oils as diesel
and jet fuel. However, these dissipate readily and leave relatively
little residue, unlike the crude and Bunker oils, which can persist in
certain sediments for up to several decades. This aspect is not as
simple and clear cut as it seems, however. Traces of No. 2 fuel oil, a
relatively volatile product, still persist in sediments of Falmouth,
Massachusetts, 13 years after the spill of the Flor Ida .
Oil Metabolites and Photochemical Reaction Products
This subject deserves separate mention as it was not raised in any
detail in the 1975 NRC report, but has become of interest in more
recent years, following observations that some petroleum metabolites or
intermediate products can be quite toxic and may even have mutagenic
proper ties .
Oil metabolites can be formed from the parent oil by biological
conversion of compounds taken up by marine biota (including bacteria),
and by photochemical processes. The relatively few data available on
either method come mainly from laboratory studies. The formation of
compounds by photochemical processes has been addressed earlier (Chapter
4 ~ . In general, irradiated samples of petroleum or water-soluble
preparations appear to be more toxic than the parent compounds. For
example, Lacaze and Villedon de Naide (1976) cite field studies sug-
gesting that the irradiated water-soluble fractions (WSF) of Kuwait
crude oil were 3 times as toxic, depressing C-fixation, as nonirradiated
WSF after 40- and 64-hour exposure of the alga Phaeodactylum cornutum.
In similar studies, Scheier and Gominger (1976 ~ examined the toxic
effects of irradiated versus nonirradiated No. 2 fuel oil, using a
Sylvania sunlamp, and compared the results with solar-irradiated WSF.
They observed that (1) sunlight was nearly 10 times more effective than
sunlamp exposure in raising the toxicity of the irradiated WSF, as
indicated by the anthracene-dianthracene conversion ratio, and (2) both
significantly increased the toxicity of the WSF due to the irradiation.
There is 1 ittle or no information on the potential toxicity of
bio, ogical metabolites of petroleum compounds, and any conclusion is
difficult, for metabolites have been demonstrated in only a few
instances (e .g ., Corner and Harr is , 1976 ; Sanborn and Mal ins , 1977,
1980; Varanasi and Gmur, 19801. There is no evidence to date that the
bulk of the petroleum hydrocarbon metabolites formed by biological
activity are any more toxic than their parent compounds e However, a
small proportion of petroleum compounds do give rise to mutagenic
OCR for page 379
379
intermediates and to metabolites capable of binding with nucleic acids
(Varanas~ and Gmur, 1980; Varanasi et al., 1980, 1982~. This potential
appears to be limited only to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
The evidence to date is sparse but does not indicate that a mutation
load has been introduced generally into the mar ine environment by this
mechanism as a direct result of petroleum spillage or chronic spillage.
However, this possibility cannot be ruled out in isolated incidents.
Remedial Measures
A great deal of effort continues to be expended, on countermeasures and
various cleanup and control methods. These generally fall into one of
two categories--mechanical and chemical--and because of their nature
they inevitably leave some traces on the landscape, be it some form of
physical disruption following mechanical cleanup or the risk of chemical
alteration following application of chemical methods. As these are an
almost automatic response to oiling incidents, a brief discussion of
their potential effects on the marine environment seems appropriate.
Mechanical Containment and Cleanup
This category includes those methods which focus on the actual removal
of oil or oiled debris, as by bulldozing or hosing with water under
pressure. Most of this activity involves the intertidal zone. Offshore
oiling incidents rarely are suitable for mechanical cleanup except by
surface skimmers or possibly the cropping of oiled kelp using mechanical
aquatic weed cutters. Neither of these is very likely to have much of
an adverse effect on the environment. However, the problem becomes
more serious in the intertidal zone, largely due to the physical disrup-
tion of habitats.
Rocky coastlines present the least problem in terms of cleanup.
Oiled rocky surfaces are cleaned most often with either flushing, steam
cleaning, sand blasting, or manual scraping. None of these is likely
to alter the substrate to any extent, and the main damage is the removal
of fauna and flora. The biological recovery process may take several
years, but nevertheless, recovery will occur. As the settling surfaces
have probably not been chemically or physically altered in the cleanup
process to any great extent, the only limitations to recovery are
biological ones. Of course, the rerelease of the stranded and flushed
oil into the water column may pose additional problems.
The problem becomes greater with the oiling of finer-grained
sediments such as cobble-boulder beaches or the fine silt sediments of
lagoons and marshes. Because of the penetration of oil into such
sediments, removal of oiled sediments often accompanies cleanup.
Excessive removal can result in the disturbance of physical and
ecological equilibrium. Excessive removal of beach sediments can lead
to beach retreat or beck shore (cliff) erosion. This was observed
following the Arrow disaster, where a 20-m landward movement of pebble-
cobble beach was recorded following large scale removal of oiled cobble
OCR for page 538
538
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
mar ine
