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OCR for page 206
Appendix D
THE MEASUREMENT OF TRACE REACTIVE SPEC I ES
I N THE STRATOSPHERE: A REVIEW OF RACE NT RESULTS
J.G. Anderson
Harvard University
INTRODUCTI ON
The central objective of this report is to review
critically the data base on trace species observations in
the stratosphere for the specific purpose of testing
predictions of global ozone depletion resulting from th
release of compounds containing chlorine and nitrogen
into the lower atmosphere. A corollary objective is to
appraise prospects for significant advances in the next
five years and to suggest a strategy for that research.
Achieving the first objective in a reasonably concise
document must confront the often incompatible elements of
data quality, quantity, and applicability to theory. For
example, a large body of data may exist on a particular
radical that is of demonstrably superior quality with
respect to the analytical method, but that, if not taken
at the proper time of day and referenced to the local
tropopause height, may be uninterpretable in terms of a
modeled distribution. We will deal with the sheer volume
of information by referencing the recent WMO/NASA report
document, "The Stratosphere 1981: Theory and Measure-
ments," whenever possible while attempting to maintain
reasonable continuity in this report (Hudson et al. 1982).
The species that are of interest to the stratospheric
photochemistry of ozone are divided into groups and
listed in Table D.1. The ordering of groups and of the
species within each group in the table is rather
arbitrary, but the choice seeks to represent the fact
that the central objective of this report is an
assessment of the effect of fluorocarbon release on
stratospheric ozone. Thus, the photochemically active
chlorine components are treated first.
e
206
on
OCR for page 207
207
TABLE D.1 Chemical Species of Interest In the Stratospheric Chemistry of Ozone
Species
Group 1 2 3 4
6 l 8
5 ~
1 C10 C1 C100 OC10 HC1 HOC1 C1ONO2
2 OH HO2 H H2 H2O2 H2O
3 0(3P) O(iD) 02(~/\) 02(~) 0*2 O3
(other)
4 NO NO2 N NO3 N2Os HONO2
5 BrO Br BrO2 OBrO HBr HOBr BrONO2
6 FO F FO2 OFO HF
A review of the data appears first.
Then we examine
. · ~ ~ ~ _
how well the current data base constrains morel prealc-
tions of ozone reduction. ~
uncertainties in the reaction rate constant data by
defining a series of six "cases," tracing the impact of
rate constant assumptions on the key free radicals and on
the altitude dependence of odd oxygen destruction.
objective is first to correlate each case with the
observed vertical distribution of the key free radicals
to determine whether a consistent picture evolves, and,
second, to identify the altitude regime in which the
maximum impact on ozone occurs, resulting from changes in
total chlorine or reactive nitrogen.
Finally we abstract from the analysis a series of
questions that must be addressed by measurement of trace
species in the stratosphere. The answers are essential
for significant progress to be realized in the near
future. Following each question is an appraisal of the
prospects for progress in the next three years.
The ~ And 1 vet in f irst summarizes
The
REVIEW OF DATA BASE ON TRACE SPECIES
Group 1: Reactive Trace Constituents
Containing Chlorine
While the case linking fluorocarbons released at the
earth's surface to the global distribution of ozone is
made up of innumerable elements, the single most important
observable in the stratosphere for a first-order appraisal
of ozone destruction rates resulting from the decomposi-
tion of fluorocarbons is the concentration of the chlorine
monoxide free radical, C10. The reason for this is that
C10 is the rate limiting (RL) chlorine constituent in the
OCR for page 208
208
major catalytic cycles (see the recent discussion by
Weubbles and Chang (1981)):
C1 + O3
C1O + 0
C1O + O2
C1 + O2 (RL)
O + O3
C1 + O3
2o2
C1O + O2
+ HOC1 + O2 (RL)
C1O + HO2
OH + O3 ~ HO' + OK
HOC1 + he
~ OH + C1
O3 + O3 ~ 3O2
C1 + O3 ~ C1O + O2
NO + O3 ~ NO2 + O2
C1O + NO2 + M ~ ClONO2 + M
ClONO2 + he ~ NO3 + C1~
NO3 + he ~ NO + O2 >(RL)
O3 + O3 ~ 3O2
C1O has thus been the focus of experimental attention
since Molina and Rowland (1974) first linked fluorocarbon
release to global ozone reduction. In addition, because
C1O dominates the chlorine free radical system with
respect to concentration, reaching nearly 1 part per
billion (ppb) in the middle to upper stratosphere (its
reactive partner, C1, for example, reaches only 1 part
per trillion [ppt] in the stratosphere), it is amenable
to a broader class of observational techniques. Four
other chlorine-containing constituents are of central
importance: HC1, C1, HOC1, and C1ONO2 (with possible
isomeric forms).
Chlorine Monoxide (C1O)
Three methods have been successfully applied to the
detection of stratospheric C1O (listed here in the
chronological order of their application):
1. Balloon-borne in situ resonance fluorescence
methods (Anderson et al. 1977, 1980; Weinstock et al.
1981).
2. Ground-based millimeter(mm)-wave emission
spectroscopy of the C1O total column at 204 GHz (Parrish
et al. 1981). -
OCR for page 209
209
3. Balloon-borne, mm-wave emission spectroscopy of
C10 at 204 GHz (Waters et al. 1981). Aircraft-borne
observations by this group had previously established an
upper limit on stratosphere C10 (Waters et al. 1979).
A fourth method, that of balloon-borne, laser hetero-
dyne radiometry (see Menzies 1978, Menzies et al. 1981),
has been applied to the problem, but ambiguities in
spectral line position prevent an interpretation of the
results.
While a clear consensus on several aspects of the
stratospheric C10 distribution has not emerged, the last
two years have witnessed several crucial steps toward a
first-order understanding of [C10] (where square brackets
indicate concentration) at middle latitudes.
We consider first results from the two balloon-borne
techniques that provide a direct determination of the
altitude dependence of [C10]. Figure D.1 summarizes 10
observations reported by Weinstock et al. (1981) obtained
using method 1. All observations contained in Figure D.1
represent midday conditions at 32°N latitude; variations
in solar zenith angle primarily reflect changes in solar
declination.
The in situ observations fall into two classes; 8 of
the 10 define an envelope with deviations limited to
about +50 percent about the observed mean; two of the
observations, both obtained in July, fall clearly outside
of the envelope and are not representative of the mean
distribution of C10 at middle latitudes. Without
independent substantiation, the two July observations
cannot be included in the data base defining the mean
distribution of C10.
In Figure D.2, the envelope of in situ observations is
superposed with the recent balloon-borne observations of
Waters et al. (1981) using mm-wave emission techniques.
Included in the in situ array is an observation (June 1,
1978) not included in the Weinstock et al. (1981)
publication because it was obtained using an instrument
with no previous flight history; the results are not at
variance and are included for completeness.
The consistency in both absolute magnitude and gradient
between the two techniques is one of the most important
results to be achieved since the last NRC report (NRC
1979). _ ~
It underscores the importance of using independent
techniques to cross-calibrate observational methods for
all of the key radicals involved directly in processes
that control the rate of odd oxygen destruction.
OCR for page 210
210
. . ~ ~ ~''1 '
41
30
29 _
27 _
26
28
2S
l _
C 10 M IXING RATIO
.
40 - o
39 - O
38 _
37 V
36 _
36 _
34 _
33 _ ~
32 - X 7
O 26 SEPTEMBER
X'38° W~~Y///~J
28 JULY 1976
8 DECEM BER 1976
14 JULY 1977
20 SEPTEMBER 1977
25 OCTOBER 1977
2 DECEMBER 1977
X~ 50°
16 NOVEMBER 1978
X =soo
;N
X ~43
5SO
41°
41°
15 JUNE 1979 ;~:
AUGUST 1979 ~! I ~: ~
[r~X
1 . ~..
10 11
T
~_
. 1
IOK)
0/ h/ _
, , . , , , ., 1 , . . . .
[CIO] / [M]
. . . . . .
10 9
-
-
10'.
FIGURE D.1 Summary of the vertical distribution of C10 obtained between July 28,
1976, and September 26, 1979, using in situ resonance fluorescence methods (from
Weinstock et al. 1981~.
50
45
40
35
LLI
30
25
C{O
N SITU RESULTS
° 12/8/76
9/20/77
. 10/25/77
· 12/2/77
o 6/1/78
· 11/16/78
° 6/1 5/79
· 8/7/79
x 9/26/77
·
·~
__
15
lo-12
COMPARISON BETWEEN BALLCON-BORNE
IN SITU AND mm-WAVE EMISS!ON RESULTS
O ·
O ·OXe
~ _ x~
· ~ O eK
· Oe ~ 0 -
· O_ _ x.
· 0. .-{ ~ - . .
· 0. 0 ~ P.
· o . 3e "*
· 0 ~ .
' O ~ ~ ~
· ao ~ ~ ~ . .
~0 0 · x
- 0 0 · ~ ·
0 0 ~0
OD ~ X.O
x ~
I t mm WAVE EM I SS ION |
| DATA ~
....
10 9
[C{O]/[M]
.d
109
FIGURE D.2 Comparison between balloon-borne in situ and mm-wave emission
observations of C10 (from Weinstock et al. 1981, Waters et al. 1981).
OCR for page 211
211
It also should be pointed out that while the envelope
of C10 data appears to be rather well defined, the
dispersion about the mean exceeds +50 percent; the
cited experimental uncertainty is +30 percent. As we
will see, when the results are applied to the problem of
constraining model-predicted ozone reduction, this
dispersion constitutes a serious impediment. In
anticipation of that fact, we represent the nine in situ
~_..~l ;~r`e Atom =;~rllr" n ~ in ~ ~m~wh~t different
V~JO=L VCI ~=v11= ~ ~ Call ~ _~ ~ ~ ~
way. Figure D.3 displays a composite ot the data
converted to absolute concentration to eliminate the
steep gradient, and in each frame a single profile is
highlighted against the background array. The variety in
profile shape is significant, with clear evidence of
vertical structure on the order of 2 km in some cases,
but nearly absent in others. In addition, the top-side
shape of [C10] exhibits significant variation.
We summarize next the results recently reported by
Parrish et al. (1981) using the ground-based, mm-wave
emission technique noted earlier (method 2), which were
obtained between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. on 17 separate days
(between January 10, 1980, and February 18, 1980) at 43°N
latitude from the Five College Radio Astronomy
Observatory, Amherst, Massachusetts. Such ground-based
observations, which employ purely rotational transitions,
are affected by collisional (pressure) broadening by
approximately 4 MHz/mb at stratospheric pressures. This
is both a blessing, in that low-resolution altitude
information can be extracted from the emission line shape,
and a curse, in that one must have a first-order estimate
of the shape of the emitting layer in order to obtain the
absolute column concentration for the observed brightness
temperature as a function of frequency. In practice,
however, the balloon-borne observations have provided the
information on the layer shape, and thus absolute column
measurements can be extracted. It should be noted,
however, that even without knowledge of the shape of the
emitting layer, some information on absolute concentration
can be extracted.
Parrish et al.
(1981) have taken the mean of seven in
situ profiles, specifically those appearing in the enve-
lope of Figure D.2, excluding the last profile obtained
on September 26, 1979, and the June 1, 1978, data (which
do not alter the conclusions to be drawn), scaled those
results by 0.8, integrated the signal that would have
resulted, and then overlayed that profile with the
observed brightness as a function of frequency. The
OCR for page 212
212
50r
451
r
~ 40
. .
35
3C
2C
50r
45
. .
~ 40
. .
ILI
35
30
25
20
JVI
451
. .
~ 40
. .
~ 35
J
~ 30
. T __ . i , ~, . ~ , .
; CtO IN ' ilTU DATA 1 i
--12/8/76 _:
~ ~ ~ X 2
. . ~ :
: I
. _
~. '
-i ,I ~,
.. .... __ _ . __ i 1 . ~ . . ..
CtO IN SITU DATA , I ~ i,
9/20/77 --i ~ I ~
1 ' ~ I ' ~
. :.
. . . ... ... ....
:. .~
.. , _ . ..
CtO IN SITU DATA
10/25/77
. . . . . . . .
! _' : ;
; o ~ : :~:
... . - , - .. ~ . -
, to !X _
· ' ~ +*O O : ·X
., I :oj~' o to. eX,
x
lo8
FIGURE D.3a Composite of the C10 profiles 12/8/76, 9/20/77, and 10/25/77.
OCR for page 213
213
50 :
45
,_
~ 40
~_
LIJ
35
30
2C
40
~U
45
40
~_
35
30
~ I I I i ~'~ ~
CtO IN SITU DATA
- 12/2/77--- I
I ~ 'I I, I I ~ ' ~x
I 1 ~:.1
i 1 1
........ __ _ :_ ' , ! . 1
CtO IN SITU DATA
.
6/1i78
.
1, 1 1' i
... .... . . .
CtO IN SITU DATA
11/16/7E
25
2C
107
: : . .* o ;ao X,
.. . . . . .
-,- e. ~ ~ ~ ~
: ~ i 0 · ' ~ o ' ~ ~x
; ~0 ~ ~ O' - ox
. ~. . . , . ~ . . ., . ~.
: ~ ° : ~ ~ V Xi
f ! o o. ~ ,.0 ~
· ~' ~' ~ ~ 4
~ , t4~., V
,6 q o , · X ~ , .0,; ~: .,
,' .o o- ·K ~ : ; :
: 0 a ~x c. ~ , ;
O K e~ ~ ~;
[ClO]
_ _
lo8
FIGURE D.3b Composite of the C10 profiles, 12/2/77, 6/1/78, and 11/16/78.
OCR for page 214
214
50r ~ , ~ , ~
45t
2C-
45t
._
~ 4C
~_
llJ
Z) 3~
3C
25
. .
. .. ... _ . . . . . . . . .
CtO IN SITU DATA
6/15/79
_ , V~ ~ ~ ~ , ~· .
40 .... _ ~ ~x
. ~ -- I~0 ~X ex
° 35 ~__ - '_·'3- ~ ~ --
30 ~. .o. 1, _. .
.:. .-..\ D i · !X ~ , .e ,,
25 cF :~ ~_ee
. ~ , ~ ', ,
''''',' , ' ~ ' ', ' ~'j '' ',
,
50 ~j j 1 . ;; ,
: .. 1 . __ _ ___,. . . . . . .
: CtO IN SITU DATA
8/7/79 - - - - - - _ ~.
, o . ,x ,.
, I , ~io~a O eX
. . . . . . . .
! ·1 1 °~ · 0 o, ex,
___ ~· e* :~ x ,'
.: I ~o ~ i '°1ai, ~, :
l _ __ ,! , ° ~g ...
_ ~D ~ ~
O ---- - - -# ~- - ,~
1 ~, l, I
'' '1 ' ~
20 ~! ! . : : :
50 j ~,
: .. . . . _ ,, .: .. . .. : ,
.CtO IN SITU DATA
9/26/79
1 ~ , :
. . . . . . . .
I ,- ; j
45 _..
1
. -4
· I
~ 3C
. ,
· oi
· d
. _ _ ~
1 ~ I O ' ., I t. ~X,
I · . . ° - _~- ''' ' ' '' '
. v i c' ~ ,~,
· &,o Do.~· ,~;;~ ,e,
25 _ . ~_ *~ ~ , ._ _ .
.. . , . , . , . ~. , , ., I
: ~
20
107
[CdO]
FIGURE D.3c Composite of the C10 profiles, 6/15/79, 8/7/79, and 9/26/79.
OCR for page 215
215
results are shown in Figure D.4. The first conclusion to
be drawn is that substantial agreement exists with respect
to absolute magnitude, since both techniques quote
uncertainties of greater than or equal to 25 percent.
However, it must be noted that the ground-based observa-
tions were done at a latitude 10° northward of the balloon
m-~,rements , and are confined to a relatively short
I l e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ ~
period of time in midwinter. A broader data base and
observations done in the same latitude band are clearly
needed. Parrish et al. (1981) report that no single day
of observation exceeded the average by more than a factor
of 2.5, and tentative evidence for variations on the order
of a factor of 2 in total C1O column density occurred on
a time scale of a few days.
An inspection of Figure D.4 indicates a point of major
importance: The mm-wave, emission line shape is
consistent with the distribution determined by both
balloon-borne techniques.
The ability of the ground-based observations to
discriminate among the available model calculations is
demonstrated in the three panels of Figure D.5. These
figures compare the line shape that would be observed for
three modeled cases: Case (a) with a mixing ratio of 2.7
ppb for total chlorine, a chemical reaction scheme
comparable to that used for the previous NRC report, and
an elevated stratospheric water vapor mixing ratio of 8
ppm (uniform from troposphere to stratosphere, as
discussed in Logan et al. (1978)); Case (b) with 2.6 ppb
for total chlorine and a "normal" mixing ratio for H2O
of ~ ppm (see Sze and Ko 1981); and, finally, Case (c)
with 1.3 ppb for total chlorine and 5 ppm H2O (see
Crutzen et al. 1978). The point is not that those
ground-based observations cast new light on the selection
of a preferred combination of total chlorine and water;
the determination of total chlorine (Berg et al. 1980)
and H2O (see Kley et al. 1980) had established that
point. Rather, the line shape resulting from the
calculated distribution of C1O using chemistry consistent
with the previous NRC report (Case a) is distinctly
broader than that observed by the mm-wave method. This
reflects the larger concentration of C1O calculated by
the model at lower altitudes in the stratosphere.
A reasonably thorough discussion of the experimental
uncertainties associated with each of the methods
discussed above appears in Chapter 1 of Hudson et al.
(1982).
OCR for page 216
216
30
An
~20
LL
on 1 0
LLJ
an
I Y
O
O
a: ~
-10
- 1\
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-80 0
1 1 1
80
FREQUENCY AROUND 204.352 MHz
FIGURE D.4 An overlay of the ground-based mm-wave emission data of Parrish et al.
(1981) and the signal that would result from an integral of the mean of the balloon-
borne in situ observations multiplied by 0.8. The mean was taken excluding the July
28, 1976, and July 14, 1977, in situ C1O profiles.
C"* a
40
30
hi
~20
a:
C3
> ye 10
m O
O _O
40 .
an
:10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o
Case b
~ ~ O
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lo
Case c
30
20
0 _
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-80 0 80 -80 0 80 -80 0 80
FREQUENCY AROUND 204.352 MHz
FIGURE D.S A comparison between the ground-based mm-wave emission data of
Parrish et al. (1981) and three modeled predictions: Case a from Logan et al. (1978)
with 8 ppm H2 O throughout the stratosphere; Case b with 5 ppm H2 O and 2.3 ppb
total chlorine from Sze and Ko (1981~; and Case c for 5 ppm H2O and 1.3 ppb total
chlorine from Crutzen et al. (1978~.
.,
OCR for page 295
295
The absence of published high-resolution data of the
solar flux as a function of altitude, solar zenith angle,
and wavelength is a shortcoming of major importance.
Without those direct measurements, the loss rate of the
critical "source" terms (e.g., CFC13, CF2C12, and
CH3C1) cannot be checked.
PROSPECTS: Within the next year, publication of the
first high-resolution data on the penetration or solar
flux in the 180- to 240-nm spectral interval should begin
to eliminate a serious shortcoming on the question. If
this does not clear up discrepancies in the loss rates
of, for example, CFC13, then it may be necessary to
consider the difficult observations of dissociation rates
directly measured in situ. A discussion of the
discrepancies between observed and calculated source
molecules (CH4, N2O, CH3C1, CFC13, ethane)
appears in Appendix C.
QUESTION 7: What is the vertical distribution of C1O,
NO, NOD, OH, and HO' between 15 and 45 km in the
equatorial latitudes?
Far too much emphasis has been placed on the analysis
of mid-latitude data as a result of the concentration of
experimental results on this region. However, the domi-
nant region of global ozone production exists at latitudes
below 30°N, and it is of first-order importance to
discover whether [C1O], for example, exhibits the behavior
characterized by a rapid decrease below 30 km as it does
at 32°N. There are comparably important examples in the
HOk and NC2 systems.
PROSPECTS: Within two years, the new generation of tech-
niques previously discussed should have provided the first
high-quality soundings of these key radicals, hopefully
with simultaneous observation of H2O and O3 with the
OH and HO2 experiments. It will require, perhaps,
another two years to establish with considerable confi-
dence the mean distribution of those radicals, but the
large observed fluctuations in H2O above the tropopause
may yield valuable insight into the chemical linking
between the NOk, HOk, and ClOk families by studying
the covariance between these radicals. Simultaneous in
situ observations of ozone may yield exceedingly impor-
tant insight into the odd oxygen budget from the same
series of observations.
OCR for page 296
296
QUESTION 8: What is the altitude distribution of the
important intermediates, HOC1, ClONOo, HO2N22,
Nit, Nigh, and MONO' in the stratosphere?
The reasons that these products of radical-radical
recombination reactions are important are discussed
throughout this report and need not be repeated. They
present a particularly difficult analytical problem,
however, because they are in general large polyatomic
molecules that do not possess strong electronic transi-
tions, yet their predicted concentrations fall below the
detection threshold of long-path IR absorption techniques.
PROSPECTS: The first three molecules in this group
constitute an exceedingly difficult triplet from the
point of view of analytical techniques that can be
applied to the stratosphere. Initial detection of
ClONO2 has been reported, but the detection is
marginally possible with the best IR methods available,
and no method has reported observation of HOC1 and
HO2NO2. Significant difficulties are predicted for
progress on these molecules, but the options have not
been exhausted. Double photon ionization methods and
fragment fluorescence may be applicable, although the
ubiquitous nature of the hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
fragments in pernitric acid will make such measurements
difficult to interpret.
Initial measurements of NC3 at night are encouraging.
Attempts to detect N2O5 by thermal dissociation
followed by detection of the NOk products formed have
been made in the laboratory, but have not shown sufficient
promise to warrant stratospheric application.
It would, in addition, be exceedingly important if an
unambiguous technique for detecting HONC2 in situ could
be developed. This would contribute significantly to the
question of the NO2, HONO2, OH chemistry of the lower
stratosphere.
QUESTION 9: What is the concentration of NC', NO, C10,
OH and OF simultaneously determined in an air mass
characterized by the very low NC: concentration
observed by Noxon northward of the high-latitude ledge
features, described in Figure D.34?
The apparent intrusion of polar air to northern
mid-latitudes in the spring represents the opportunity to
test in an interesting way the nitrogen, hydrogen, and
chlorine chemistry of the stratosphere.
OCR for page 297
297
PROSPECTS: The analytical techniques will be available
within two years to explore in situ and simultaneously
the concentration of NO, NO2, C10, OH, HO2, and O3
in the vicinity of the NO2 "ledge" reported by Noxon,
based on ground-based observations of nitrogen dioxide.
A detailed understanding of the free radical concentra-
tion in such an event would be an exceedingly interesting
perturbation experiment.
QUESTION 10: Is water vapor the constituent responsible
for inducing the variability in free radical concentra-
tions evident in virtually all the results reported in
this paper?
Given the extreme sensitivity of [H2O] to the
tropopause temperature and the large observed fluctua-
tions of water above the tropical tropopause, it seems
plausible that fluctuations in H2O, which in turn cause
fluctuations in OH and HO2, constitute a starting point
for observed local changes in NO, NO2, and C10. The
mechanistic links are discussed both here and in Appendix
C.
PROSPECTS: As the signal-to-noise ratio, absolute call
bration, altitude resolution, and capability to make a
large number of simultaneous observations improve in the
next three to four years, a wealth of information about
how fluctuations in local water vapor concentrations
affect the HOx, NOx, and C10x chemistry of the
stratosphere will evolve. Thus correlation experiments
may best be carried out in the equatorial region, where
fluctuations in H2O may be the most dramatic. If local
variability reported from aircraft observations well
above the tropopause hold at higher altitudes, an
entirely new class of correlation experiments will
evolve. Such measurements hold great promise for
establishing cause-and-effect links within the complex
net of reactions linking the various families through
radical-radical reactions.
QUESTION 11: Does the odd oxygen production/destruction
budget balance, based on observed concentrations of the
rate limiting free radicals?
Although transport times in the odd oxygen continuity
equation obviate the possibility of applying a purely
chemical test to the balance of local odd oxygen produc
OCR for page 298
298
. . .
tion and destruction in the lower stratosphere, it is
essential that we continue to press the issue of improved
analytical techniques for NO2, HO2, C1O, O(3P), and
Or to Quantify, as a function of altitude and latitude,
the balance between production and destruction of odd
oxygen. Although this approach cannot directly test
cause-and-effect relationships with the odd oxygen budget
and the approach is currently seriously diluted by large
experimental uncertainties, it must be carefully pursued.
PROSPECTS: The next two years will bring considerably
.
more accurate detection techniques for the major rate
limiting radicals, NO2, C1O, HO2, OH, O(3P), and
O3 with cross-calibration against remote techniques and
limited latitude coverage. Although such techniques can
never prove completeness in our definition of ozone
production and loss processes, the detailed accounting
will provide important evidence suggesting the altitude
dependence of proposed mechanisms.
REFERENCES
Ackerman, M. and C. Muller (1973) Stratospheric methane
and nitrogen dioxide from infrared spectra. Pure and
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
research letters
