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OCR for page 5
1
Industrial Food Processing Wastes
INTRODUCTION
As a result of changing waste-handling technology, many industrial food
processing wastes now being fed to animals were once considered to be
without economic value as animal feed. Other factors that have increased
the interest in wastes as animal feeds include the cost of disposing of
waste and increased restrictions, brought about by environmental con-
cerns, on disposing of waste materials. The necessity of separating solid
waste from liquid waste, as well as the necessity of removing suspended
and dissolved substances from wastewater before discharging it, has re-
sulted in the production of waste materials that are lower in water content
and consequently more economically attractive as animal feeds. More
stringent controls on the use of pesticides have also reduced the pesticide
levels in food processing wastes.
QUANTITY
In general, information on quantities of industrial food processing wastes
(residuals) is limited. Information on processing wastes from fruit, ve*~-
etable, and seafood processing, collected by Katsuyama et al. (1973), is
presented in Tables 1 and 2. Although these data are not current, an overall
view is given of waste from fruit, vegetable, and seafood processing. The
major changes since 1973 would be greater utilization of wastes for animal
feed and as sources of energy. There are also data on quantities of waste
in the sections on specific wastes. Table 1 summarizes food processing
s
OCR for page 6
6 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
TABLE 1 Yearly Food Processing Industry Solid Residuals, by
Product and Disposal Method
TotalTotal Total TotalTotalNot
Raw Tonsas in By-Resid-Accounted
ProductProcessedSolids LiquidFeed OtherProductsualsFor
Vegetables
Asparagus10922 017 17383
Bean, dry2095 a2 26(-1)
Bean, lima1099 09 917(-3)
Bean, snap57161 358 581180
Beet24559 516 168219
Broccoli
sprouts,
cauliflower23619 182 82100a
Cabbage20958 55 569( -1 )
Carrot25433 291 a911279
Corn2,24981 31,388 1,3881,46938
Greens,
spinach2187 a22 22304
Mushroom6129 a 029( - 2)
Pea52622 044 a44674
Pickle50836 1 037(-14)
Potato, white3,23877 44943 9431,061154
Pumpkin,
squash20020 822 2235088
Tomato6,322345 27109 109472136
Vegetable,
misc.1,106100 47100 100245a
Fruits
Apple95282 a100 7918126327
Apricot1095 a6 28144
Berry1819 21 1132
Cherry17218 14 a4241
Citrus7,07572 12,721 32,7212,794281
Fruit,
misc.13623 a7 29333
Olive772 a 9910a
Peach998163 1345 4085263(-17)
Pear37265 933 3310913
Pineapple81627 9326 3263630
Plum,
prune245 1a 061
Specialtiesb2,26839 22190 152092720
Seafood
Clam,
scallop8211 a 01 259
Oyster180 2 141416a
Crab274 14 0201
Shrimp1096 3714 a156018
Salmon1090 324 25363
Sardine240 0 555a
Tuna,
misc.
seafood4720 a62 27909082
U.S. total30,3911,514 2896,421 1196,6248,420950
NOTE: All figures x 1,000 metric tons; rounded (after adding).
a4S0 metric tons or less.
bBaby food, soups, ethnic foods, health food, and prepared dinners.
SOURCE: Adapted from Katsuyama et al. (1973).
OCR for page 7
industrial Food Processing Wastes 7
industry solid residuals by product and disposal method. The weight not
accounted for, when it is a positive number, represents materials probably
leached into wastewater and other product shrinkage in the time between
weighing the raw product and processing it. When the numbers are neg-
ative, the weight not accounted for is probably due to errors in estimating
the percentage yields of the residual tons disposed of.
Table 2 shows the same data as Table 1, but on a regional basis.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
In general, food processing wastes contain a high percentage of water,
are perishable, and must be processed rapidly. The dry matter of animal
processing wastes tends to be high-protein, low-carbohydrate materials
that are available throughout the year. The dry matter of fruit and vegetable
processing wastes tends to be low-protein, high-carbohydrate materials
that are seasonably available.
FRUIT AND NUT PROCESSING WASTES
Apple (Malus pumila) Processing Wastes
Several wastes Tom apple processing are suitable animal feeds. Apple
pomace, the residual material from pressing apples for juice, contains
TABLE 2
Region
Food Processing Industry Solid Residuals per Year, by
TotalTotal Total Total Total Not
Raw Tonsas in By- Resid- Accounted
Region Processed Solid Liquid Feed Other Products ualsFor
New England 889 8 23104 14118154 163
Mid-Atlantic 1,868 254 699 59154417 118
South
Atlantic 7,546 200 622,436 132,4492,712 299
North Central 5,342 363 251,156 181,1791,560 56
South Central 1,106 49 23195 6200272 39
Mountain 218 18 342 4262 12
Northwest 3,909 136 521,263 121,2791,460 100
Alaska 145 0 453 4652 5
Southwest 9,351 499 551,186 751,2611,824 118
U.S. Total 30,374 1,527 2946,484 2016,6888,513 910
NOTE: All figures x 1,000 metric tons; rounded (after adding).
SOURCE: Adapted from Katsuyama et al. (1973).
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8 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
pulp, peels, and cores. Between 250 and 350 kg wet pomace are formed
from each ton of apples pressed for juice, or 25 to 35 percent of the fresh
weight of the apple is retained in the pomace after pressing (Smock and
Neubert, 19501. The residual material from canning, drying, and freezing,
also called apple pomace, consists of the peels, cores, and discarded apples
or pieces. Either type of apple pomace may be used for vinegar or other
by-product production. Pomace is also used for livestock feed (Katsuyama
et al., 19731. Leaves, stems, dirt, and some other wastes are disposed of
as landfill or by field spreading. Apple pectin pulp is the residue following
extraction of pectin from apple pomace. Pectin extraction is less commonly
practiced than in the past because citrus pectin extraction is more com-
petitive (Ben-Gee and Kramer, 1969~.
Apple pomace from juice pressing often contains 0.5 to 1.0 percent
rice hulls that are added to aid filtration (Walter et al., 19751. Dried rice
hulls were added at a ratio of 1:13 on a dry-weight basis in one study
(Wilson, 19711. Other filter aids include diatomaceous earth and fiber
paper (Katsuyama et al., 19731.
Nutritional Value
Apple pomace and pectin pulp, wet, dried, or ensiled, are suitable feeds
for ruminant animals (Smock and Neubert, 19501. Apple pomace is pal-
atable to cattle and sheep; pectin pulp is less palatable to dairy cows than
is apple pomace, and addition of molasses was suggested to increase the
palatability of pectin pulps. Smock and Neubert (19503 reported that apple
pomace was unsuitable for horses and of questionable value to pigs.
Average digestion coefficients of wet apple pomace for ruminants are
protein, 37 percent; fat, 46 percent; fiber, 65 percent; and NFE, 85 percent.
Burris and Priode (1957) found apple pomace had feeding value similar
to grass silage for wintering beef cattle.
Addition of rice hulls increases the fiber content and lowers the feeding
value of pomace.
Processing
Fresh pomace spoils rapidly and must be used quickly or be preserved by
dehydration or ensiling. Drying to about 10 percent moisture prevents
spoilage and spontaneous combustion. Drying takes place in direct-fired,
rotary-drum driers, and the pomace is then ground in hammer mills (Cruess,
19581. The processing may result in some heat damage to the protein.
Apple pomace is often mixed with alfalfa or corn for ensiling (Smock
and Neubert, 1950~. Cull apples may also be preserved as silage by mixing
OCR for page 9
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 9
with 20 percent alfalfa hay. Apples ensiled alone result in a very high
moisture product with considerable loss by drainage.
Citrus Processing Wastes
Wastes from the citrus industry are very well utilized as by-products,
including as feed. Approximately 39 percent of the processed fruit is not
used in the primary product; 97 percent of this amount is recovered as
by-products (Jones, 19731. Wastewater treatment accounts for the major
remaining waste problem in the citrus industry. Recent developments have
centered on the use of activated sludge wastes as animal feed and are
reviewed in the section, "Citrus Activated Sludge."
Hendrickson and Kesterson (1965) reviewed the processing of citrus
wastes, the composition of by-products, and their utilization.
The three main by-product feeds from citrus processing are
1. Dried citrus pulp, which is formed by shedding, liming, pressing,
and drying the peel, pulp, and seed residues to 8 percent moisture.
2. Citrus meal and fines, which are formed and separated during the
drying process. A typical processing plant produces 85 percent citrus pulp,
14 percent citrus meal, and l percent fines. Citrus meal has higher density
than pulp, and higher fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and ash content.
3. Citrus molasses, which is made by concentrating the press liquor
from the citrus peel residue. It is usually added to the dried citrus pulp.
Most of these materials are utilized as animal feed, although citrus peel
liquor and citrus activated sludge are utilized to a lesser extent. Citrus
peel liquor is a by-product, similar to citrus molasses, but not as concen-
trated (S. Reeder, SunKist Growers, Inc., Ontario, Calif., 1979, personal
communication). The citrus peel liquor studied by Lofgreen and Prokop
(1979) had a dry matter content of 47.3 percent.
In feeding trials with growing beef cattle, citrus peel liquor was found
to have a net energy for maintenance (NEm) of 2.24 Mcal/kg and for gain
(NEg) 1.48 Mcal/kg on a dry-matter basis (Lofgreen and Prokop, 19791.
Citrus peel liquor fed with cane molasses contained higher net energy
values than either one alone. NEm and NEg are 1.97 and 1.32 Mcal/kg,
respectively, for citrus molasses' on a dry-matter basis (National Research
Council, 19761.
Citrus activated sludge is produced by treating the liquid wastes from
citrus processing plants. Sludge recovery and the nutritional value for
poultry have been studied (Damron et al., 1974; Jones et al., 19751.
Dehydrated sludge was found to be profitable. Dried sludge was acceptable
as a poultry feed for up to 7.5 percent of the diet (Damron et al., 19741.
Its inclusion in the diet reduced the amounts of yellow corn, soybean
OCR for page 10
1O UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
meal, and phosphorus required. However, amounts of fat and methionine
had to be increased to maintain energy and sulfur amino acid levels,
respectively. The dried sludge also improved skin and egg yolk color, and
no off flavors were detected in egg yolks or albumin. Higher levels of
dried sludge in the diet had detrimental effects.
Peach (Prunus persica) Processing Wastes
Peaches are graded and the percent of cull fruit determined before shipment
of the entire lot from orchard to processors. Batches of cull fruit may
need to be sorted in order to be accepted, or the grower may choose to
dump the fruit in the orchard to avoid sorting costs. At the processing
plant, cull and undersized fruit are removed.
The total peach processing residual is 26 percent of raw fruit. The
disposal methods used are land disposal, 63 percent; liquid waste, 5 per-
cent; feed, 17 percent; and other by-products, 15 percent (Katsuyama et
al., 1973~.
Usually peeling is done by the use of lye solution and washing. Dry
caustic (lye) peeling methods have been investigated but are less commonly
used. The waste from lye peeling is either soluble or in very fine particles
and is highly alkaline. Dry caustic peeling waste sludge has the following
properties: 9 to 10 percent solids content, pH of 13 to 14, dark brown
color, and applesauce-like texture (Smith, 19761. Culls and pieces are
removed at various stages of the processing operation. Dry wastes, in-
cluding trash and cull fruit, are usually used for landfill or soil application;
some fruit is used as feed or for alcohol production. Screened solids are
removed from the wastewater and disposed of as above (Katsuyama et
al., 19731. Peach peeling slurry from wet-peel methods may be recovered
from the wastewater by shaker screen sedimentation treatment, or it may
be discharged into the wastewater stream. Dry peeling wastes are kept
out of the waste stream (Gray and Hart, 19721.
The factors that hinder the use of peach wastes as animal feed include
(1) costs of transportation of the high-moisture wastes from processing
plants to livestock producing areas; (2) the high sugar content of peaches,
which makes drying difficult (and a suitable drying technology has not
been developed); and (3) the short canning season.
Little information is available on the feed value of
c peach wastes.
Pear (Pyrus commur~is) Processing Wastes
In the past, pear waste was processed into two feed products, pear pulp
(or pomace) and pear molasses. This is no longer done on a commercial
OCR for page 11
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 11
scale. The 1979 production of pears in the United States was 781,553
metric tons with 502,680 metric tons or 64 percent processed (U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture, 19801. According to Katsuyama et al. (1973)
about 29 percent of the raw pear tonnage was residual and 30 percent of
the residual was recovered as feed. In 1950, when pear waste processing
was being developed, 40 percent of the raw tonnage was residual (Graham
et al., 19521. From one ton of waste, 55 kg of pear pulp (8 percent
moisture) and 135 kg of molasses (50 percent sugar content) can be
obtained (Brown et al., 19501.
Pears are peeled both mechanically and chemically (lye peeling), but
mechanical peeling predominates. Present methods of disposing of pear
wastes include landfill and field spreading, with some of the solid wastes
(peels, cores, and screened solids) being used as feed. Because of high
transportation costs these wastes are fed fresh by local farmers (G. York,
University of California, Davis, 1979, personal communication). Other
methods of waste recovery have been considered and some implemented.
These include fermentation to produce alcohol, methane production, and
edible juice recovery.
Nutritional Value
According to Guilbert and Weir (1951), pear pulp and pear molasses are
both very palatable to ruminants. The pear pulp studied contained a small
amount of other fruit wastes. In feeding trials, steers were fed a fattening
diet with pear pulp forming 25 percent of the concentrate, replacing mo-
lasses and dried beet pulp. Pear pulp had a value of 70 to 75 percent of
molasses and dried beet pulp, and pear molasses had a value of 115 to
120 percent of cane molasses. Pear molasses had a lower nitrogen and
ash content and higher total digestible nutrients than cane molasses. Pear
molasses was more palatable than beet molasses-so palatable that it could
not be fed as free choice but instead had to be mixed with other feeds.
Feeding trials with sheep were also conducted (Guilbert and Weir, 19511.
The total digestible nutrients, dry-matter basis, for pear pulp and pear
molasses were 60 and 86 percent, respectively.
Processing
According to Brown et al. (1950) pear wastes processed for feed and
containing some other wastes had an average solids content of 13.8 per-
cent. The wastes included variable quantities of peach, tomato, and grape
wastes. The variability of the composition of the waste made processing
more difficult. Pear waste could not be dehydrated directly and the slimy
OCR for page 12
12 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
character of the waste made pressing difficult. To overcome these prob-
lems, a process was developed, and later used commercially, consisting
of grinding the waste in a hammer mill, liming, aging for a short time,
and pressing. The press juice was concentrated to form molasses and the
press cake shredded to form pear pulp. Because of the low fiber content
of the waste, a certain amount of dried pulp or other material was added
to aid pressing.
Fruit Canneries' Activated Sludge
In several food processing industries, wastewater is treated by activated
sludge methods, and the feeding value of some form of activated sludge
was studied. Since many fruit and vegetable processors process several
fruits or vegetables at one plant and could use activated sludge treatment,
this topic is covered separately.
Waste activated sludge treatment was evaluated at a plant processing
apples, pears, peaches, plums, crabapples, and cherries (Esvett, 19761.
The principal costs of the system were for additions of nitrogen and
phosphorus because the wastes were low in these, and energy costs for
aeration, sludge circulation, and sludge disposal. Sludge at the plant is
currently thickened and disposed of by application to agricultural land.
Physical Characteristics
The sludge is highly viscous and can be moved by a bucket-type loader
or belt conveyor (Esvett, 19761. When the sludge was stored for 10 months
in a 208-liter drum, deterioration and production of ammonia were evident.
Nutritional Value
The composition of the sludge, dry-matter basis, was 39.1 percent crude
protein, 3.2 percent crude fiber, 0.8 percent ether extract, 11.64 percent
ash, 1.08 percent calcium, and 1.28 percent phosphorus (Esvett, 19761.
In a digestibility study, biological solids (or concentrated activated
sludge) were fed to steers as 2.3, 4.5, and 9.2 percent of the diet, on a
dry-matter basis. The digestibility of the diets was not affected by inclusion
of biological solids at the 5 percent level or less. A second study was
done using biological solids in the finishing diet of steers at 2.3, 4.6, and
8.9 percent biological solids. Feed efficiency was not significantly dif-
ferent from the control.
OCR for page 13
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 13
Winery Wastes
Wine-making is a large industry in California, with lesser quantities being
produced in New York and other states. In 1979, 2,461,324 metric tons
of grapes were used for wine-making in the United States. Of this amount
96.5 percent was processed in California, 2.5 percent in New York, and
the balance in other states (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 19801. Some
wines are made from apples, pears, and other fruits; information on the
quantity of nongrape wines produced is not available. The major wastes
from wineries are stems, pomace, lees, stillage, and cleanup washwater.
If distilled wines are made, the pomace becomes part of the stillage (also
called still slops or still bottoms). The stillage is the residue remaining
after all alcohol has been distilled. The lees are the sediments that settle
out during the storage and aging of wine and that are removed during
racking. Winery operations are seasonal; crushing and fermentation occurs
from August to November, while distillation may continue throughout the
year.
The stems (approximately 5 percent of the original grape material) are
usually disposed of by field spreading or burning (Stokes, 19671. Use of
dried pomace as a feed declined to negligible amounts in 1966 (Amerine
et al., 1972), but recently large amounts of pomace are being dehydrated
for feed in California. The quantity of pomace produced has been estimated
as 10 to 20 percent of the original grape weight (Ben-Gee and Kramer,
19691. Another study estimated a yield of 10 percent pomace, containing
45 percent solids (Pattee, 1947~. Amerine et al. (1972) estimated 12
percent pomace yield. The solids content of the pressed pomace may be
30 to 35 percent (J. Cooke, University of California, Davis, 1976, personal
communication). Annual U.S. production of grape pomace was estimated
at 45.4 to 72.6 million dry kg, and production of combined apple and
pear pomace was estimated at 7.3 to 9.1 million dry kg (Prokop, 19791.
In California, approximately 18.2 million dry kg are used for feed (G.
Cooke, University of California, Davis, 1979, personal communication).
Nutritional Value
Only a few studies on the feeding value of grape pomace have been
conducted, but pomace has been fed to ruminant animals in the United
States and other countries for many years. The French use pomace as feed
and consider it similar in quality to good hay (Amerine et al., 19721.
Because of differences in wine production in the two countries, pomace
from French wineries may have higher feed value. According to Amerine
et al. (1972), the grape stems contain appreciable amounts of fermentable
OCR for page 14
14 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
carbohydrate. Grape pomace has a high fiber content and lower feed value
than other fruit-wine pomaces. The seed content of wet pomace ranged
from 20 to 30 percent (Amerine et al., 19721. The seeds have a fibrous
hull that decreases the feeding value of the pomace. If the seeds were
hulled and pressed for oil extraction; the presscake would be valuable as
animal feed. The pomaces are high in moisture and generally rather fi-
brous.
Protein and energy are noorlv divested, the digestibility of protein being
~o per`;en~ anu tne ~ values ranging from 24 to 30 percent, air-dry
basis. These values were obtained in a study in which grape pomace was
fed at a level higher than 50 percent of the diet, with alfalfa hay in one
trial and as 100 percent of the diet in another (Forger, 19401. Prokop
(1979), in a more recent study, fed grape pomace at 20 percent of the
diet. Net energy values obtained with beef cattle on finishing diets were:
NEm, 0.75 Mcal/kg, and NEg, 0.41 Mcal/k~ on a dry-matter basis. In
the same study, a combination of apple, pear, and grape pomaces and
apple pomace were also tested at the 20 percent level. On a drY-matter
~7
1 ~ ~ 1 ~1_ _ ~% T 1 -
basis, the value of apple winery pomace was comparable to beet pulp.
The combination was similar in nutritive value to dried alfalfa pellets (20
percent protein). The value of pear pomace was estimated at 89 percent
of the value of the apple pomace (Prokop, 19791.
In a recent study in Cyprus, Hadjipanayiotou and Louca (-1979) fed
dried grape pomace (also called grape mare) as 15 and 30 percent of calf
fattening diets. Urea was added to compensate for the low digestibility of
grape pomace protein. The composition of the grape pomace was very
similar to that reported by Prokop (19791. On a dry-matter basis, crude
protein was 12.3 percent and was 19.5 percent digestible. The digestion
coefficient for dry matter was 28.4 percent. Metabolizable energy was
1450 kcal/kg, dry-matter basis approximately half that of barley. The
feed intake and gain of the calves were not significantly different when
grape pomace formed 0, 15, or 30 percent of the diet. However, there
was a significant difference in feed efficiency between the 0 and 30 percent
levels. The dressing percentages of the calves fed 30 percent grape pomace
tended to be lower.
Most of the pear and apple winery pomaces are being used as feed.
Some is being dried for this purpose, but most is being fed wet, (M. J.
Prokop, University of California, E1 Centro, 1979, personal communi-
cation).
Processing
Wet grape pomace stores well in compacted piles; only the outer layer
deteriorates (Stokes, 19674. Large quantities can be dried in rotary drum
OCR for page 15
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 15
driers and ground in hammer mills. Small quantities of apple and pear
pomaces may be combined with the grape pomace for drying. The non-
grape pomaces are more difficult to dry, and combining with grape pomace
makes drying easier. The pomace not being used as feed is spread on
land.
Cacao (Theabroma cacao) Processing Wastes
Commercial cacao beans are imported into the United States for chocolate
and cocoa manufacture. Imports of cacao beans into the United States in
1979 were 167,881 metric tons (U. S. Department of Agriculture, 19801.
The two major uses of cacao bean shells are as animal feed and nursery
mulch. Calculated yields of shell available for by-product recovery ranged
from 8 to 12 percent of the commercial beans, depending on the efficiency
of winnowing, the quantity of shell-nib mixtures, and the variety of bean
(Chats, 19531.
Physical Characteristics
The shells are brittle and, depending on the processing equipment, may
be broken into fine pieces, but they are not ground intentionally at this
stage. Feed manufacturers may grind the shells prior to incorporating them
into feed mixtures. In California more shells are used as feed than in other
areas of the country because cacao shells are not used as extensively for
mulch in California, other mulches being preferred.
Nutritional Value
The fat content of the shells is about 3 to 3.5 percent and varies with the
amount of fat transferred during roasting and the quantity of nib present
(the nib is the cotyledon of the cacao from which various chocolate and
cocoa products are made) (Chats, 19531. The ash content varies from 5.5
percent (Chats, 1953) to 10.8 percent (Morrison, 1956) dry-matter basis.
The crude protein content is 13.5 to 16 percent but has low digestibility
(Chats, 1953; Morrison, 19564. Crude fiber is 16 to 20 percent (Chats,
19531. The shells also contain considerable vitamin D (Morrison, 1956~.
Fruit Pits, Fruit Pit Kernels, Nut Hulls, and Nut Shells
Total U.S. nut shell and fruit pit wastes have been estimated at over 453.6
million kg annually (Mantel!, 19751. Nut shells and fruit pits are burned
as fuel, made into charcoal, or used as landfill. Some of the charcoal
made from nut shells and fruit pits is used in animal feeds. Shells from
OCR for page 35
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 35
to 30 to 50 percent water and then dried separately or mixed with other
meat by-products.
Alwatech protein concentrate usually contains 10 percent LSA, dry-
matter basis. Composition varies with the type of effluent treated; meat
and fish effluents have been studied. Because the effluent is treated within
1 or 2 hours, the bacteriological condition is excellent. The product has
been substituted for 50 percent fish meal or soybean meal in chick and
swine diets with satisfactory results. LSA is a purified derivative from
wood pulping liquors.
Paulson and Lively (1979) reported on the use of activated sludge
treatment and the use of activated sludge as animal feed. The initial solids
content of the sludge was 0.3 to 0.6 percent. Pilot studies on thickening
sludge by air flotation and centrifugation were conducted. Sludge samples
were dried and analyzed. Nitrite and nitrate content were found to be less
than 0.1 percent.
The protein content, dry-matter basis, from several samples was 47 to
57 percent. Feeding trials were conducted with rats where sludge replaced
up to 100 percent of the dietary protein. Good results were obtained when
sludge provided 25 percent of the dietary protein. The rats gained weight
when sludge was fed as the only protein source but at a slower rate than
normal. This was probably due to the amino acid imbalance of the sludge.
The sludge was analyzed for amino acids and found to have a high level
of methionine compared to soybean meal.
Tannery Wastes
In recent years the United States has been producing about 40 million
cattle hides per year, 50 percent of which are tanned by domestic tanners
(M. Komanowsky and J. C. Craig, USDA Eastern Regional Research
Center, Philadelphia, Pa., 1979, personal communication). When pro-
cessed in the tannery only about 55 percent of the weight of the hide goes
into making leather. Most of the remaining 45 percent is wasted, 5 to 10
percent as waste hair, 5 to 10 percent as dissolved proteins, 15 percent
as flashings and trimmings, and 15 percent as splits. A fresh cattle hide
contains 64 percent water, 33 percent protein, 2 percent fat, 0.5 percent
mineral salts, and 0.5 percent other substances. The 33 percent protein is
composed of 87.8 percent collagen, 6.1 percent keratin, 5.2 percent non-
structural proteins (albumins, globulins, etc.), and 0.9 percent elastin. To
make leather, the tanner removes most of the noncollagenous materials.
Nutritional Value Wisman and Engel (1961) prepared two tannery by-
product meals, referred to as partially hydrolyzed tannery by-product meal
OCR for page 36
36 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
and unhydrolyzed, acetone extracted, tannery by-product meal. Both were
made from limed hide flashings. The hydrolyzed meal contained 93.5
percent dry matter, 68.3 percent crude protein, 1.52 percent ether extract,
and 23.2 percent ash. The unhydrolyzed meal contained 79.2 percent dry
matter, 67.8 percent crude protein, 7.7 percent ether extract, and 4.2
percent ash. The protein of the meals contained 8.1 percent lysine, 20.9
percent glycine, 0.13 percent tryptophan, and 2.4 percent methionine.
The meals were tested in poultry diets as replacements for up to 75
percent of soybean oil meal protein. Diets had constant levels of protein,
energy, calcium, and phosphorus. Maximum levels of meals in poultry
diets appeared to be 12.5 to 25 percent of the soybean meal protein.
Responses to both meals were similar. Adding tryptophan to the diet did
not improve growth rates; thus tryptophan was not considered the first
limiting amino acid (Wisman and Engel, 19611.
Waldroup et al. (1970) found that chicks fed 2 to 3 percent hydrolyzed
leather meal replacing soybean meal performed as well as the controls
even without adding supplemental amino acids. Chicks could be fed up
to 8 percent leather meal when supplemented with amino acids with no
significant differences between treatments. Metabolizable energy content
of the leather meal was 2,920 kcal/kg, dry matter basis. Compared to
soybean meal, methionine, lysine, and tryptophan were found to be low
in leather meal.
Dilworth and Day ~ 1970) conducted a similar experiment and also found
that chicks fed 1 to 3 percent leather meal had equal or greater growth
than those fed the basal diet, with or without minimum amino acid levels
being specified in the diets.
A study was conducted by Knowlton et al. (1976) using hydrolyzed
leather scrap to replace 0 to 75 percent of soybean meal crude protein on
an isonitrogenous basis in sheep diets. On a dry-matter basis the leather
meal contained 75.4 percent crude protein, 1.8 percent ether extract, 18.6
percent ash, and 3.0 percent chromium. Of the many parameters measured
in the study, few were affected by the inclusion of hydrolyzed leather
meal in the diet at the 50 and 75 percent substitution levels. There was a
decrease in apparent digestibility of crude protein at these levels. Hydro-
lyzed leather meal protein had digestibility values of 81.2, 71.6, and 71.2
percent in the 25, 50, and 75 percent substitution-level diets, respectively.
Several reasons suggested for the lower digestibilities were incomplete
hydrolysis during processing, heat damage incurred during flash drying,
tanning, or a combination of these.
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Industrial Food Processing Wastes 37
Hair
Hair is available from two sources: from tannery operations that use the
"save-hair system" and from slaughterhouse hog hair, which is removed
by scalding and scraping.
Nutritional Value Several studies have been conducted on the feeding
of raw and processed hog and cattle hair. Moran et al. (1967a,b) found
that raw hog hair fed to roosters was very poorly digested, with a meta-
bolizable energy of only 0.58 Mcal/kg on a dry-matter basis. The energy
value of the raw hog hair appeared to be derived mainly from the fat
content. Hog hair contains 88.1 percent protein, 6.7 percent fat, and 2.2
percent ash, dry-matter basis. Processing under pressure (3.5 kg/cm2) at
148°C for 30 minutes greatly improved the digestibility. Metabolizable
energy was 2.14 Mcal/kg on a dry-matter basis. They found that both
hydrogen bonding and disulfide bonding involving cystine were respon-
sible for the low digestibility of protein in raw hair. The cystine content
of protein in raw hair was found to be lO to 15 percent. When the hog
hair was processed, cystine was reduced to 3.5 percent of the protein and
glycine was noticeably increased from 4.5 to 6.4 percent.
Processing hair is very similar to processing feathers, with a slightly
higher temperature being required, 148°C compared to 142°C. In chick-
growing diets, up to 5 percent of the soybean protein in a 20 percent
protein corn-soybean diet could be replaced by processed hog hair with
little effect on growth or feed efficiency. If processed hog hair is substituted
for soy protein completely, amino acid supplementation is necessary to
prevent severe growth depression. Growth depression was completely
overcome by supplementation with lysine, methionine, tryptophan, and
glycine, which were the first through fourth limiting amino acids, re-
spectively (Moran et al., 1967a,b).
Moran and Summers (1968) also studied cattle hair in chick diets. The
hair had been removed from the hide following calcium hydroxide and
sodium sulfide treatment. The metabolizable energy of the raw cattle hair
was 1.69 Mcal/kg and was increased to 2.25 Mcal/kg, dry-matter basis,
when processed in the same manner as hog hair. The cystine level in raw
cattle hair was 5.34 percent of protein and was reduced to 2.92 percent
by processing; glycine was increased. Changes in the amino acid content,
which had not been observed when processing hog hair or feathers, showed
decreases in histidine, lysine, and tyrosine. The authors suggested that
this may have been caused by nonenzymatic browning. Substituting the
processed cattle hair for soy protein in a 20 percent protein diet did not
affect chick performance. However, if processed cattle hair was substituted
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38 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
for all of the soy protein, supplementation with methionine, lysine, tryp-
tophan, histidine, and glycine was required to prevent growth depression.
Kornegay and Thomas (1973) found that diets containing 2 to 3 percent
processed hog hair meal could be substituted for soybean meal on a
digestible protein basis without depressing growth or feed efficiency. At
levels above 6 percent processed hog hair, however, feed intake was
depressed. Amino acid deficiencies, imbalance, or poor availability were
suggested as causes.
ALTERNATIVE USES FOR FOOD PROCESSING WASTES
Other than for animal feed, uses for food processing wastes have developed
because of the increased cost of fossil fuels for energy. Some food pro-
cessing wastes are now being used for fuel or for alcohol production.
Depending upon cost of fuel, some materials (e.g.' almond hulls, fruit
pits, and nut shells) may be burned as fuel rather than utilized as animal
feed. Also, food processing wastes high in fermentable carbohydrates and
sugars may be utilized in alcohol production.
ANIMAL AND HUMAN HEALTH PROBLEMS AND REGULATORY
ASPECTS
Pesticide Residues
The possibility of harmful pesticide residues must be considered when
using crop material wastes. Pesticide use and consequent residues on crops
for human consumption are regulated and monitored by federal and state
agencies.
Food processors have information on the pesticides used on the crops
that they process. It is important that this information be obtained from
the processor by those intending to use food processing waste materials
for animal feed. In turn, it may often be necessary to analyze the waste
material for pesticides to determine that tolerances are not exceeded.
Pesticides may be present in higher concentrations on the waste material
than on the total raw product received by the food processor. The reason
for this is that the pesticide residues are usually on the surface of the
commodity and are removed by washing, peeling, and trimming; thereby,
they are concentrated in the waste material.
Variable levels of pesticides were reported in apple pomace by Rumsey
et al. (19771. Feeding the pomace caused significant accumulation of
pesticide in depot fat of pregnant beef cows. Pesticide residues in potatoes
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Industrial Food Processing Wastes 39
were reviewed by McCoy et al. (19751. However, by-product feeds were
not covered, only the whole potato and the potato parts. As with most
fruits and vegetables, the residue content is higher in the peels. McCoy
et al. (1975) state that potatoes, as a root crop, are less likely to carry
toxic residues than above-ground crops because the pesticides must either
be in the soil or translocated from the aerial part of the plant to reach the
tuber.
Feed use of tomato waste may be limited because insecticide levels are
often higher than residue standards set for feeds (Schultz et al., 1976,
19771. Toxaphene is one pesticide involved, and the residue can be present
in the waxy layer of the skin. Removal of the tomato skin would increase
the value of the pomace. The adhering pulp could then be recovered for
food use, as has been similarly studied with peel residue from canning.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals were not found in significant quantities in the biological
solids from fruit-cannery activated sludge or the carcasses of animals fed
the sludges (Esvett, 19761.
Chromium accumulated in tissues, particularly kidney tissue, and some
in fat in chicks fed hydrolized leather meal (Dilworth and Day, 19701.
Waldroup et al. (1970) reported that chromium tended to accumulate in
kidneys of chicks fed 8 percent leather meal, but not in all tissues ex-
amined. Chromium levels are restricted to 2.75 percent in tannery by-
products fed to swine (Knowlton et al., 19761.
Animal Health
Apple Pomace and Nonprotein Nitrogen
A serious reproductive problem was encountered when apple pomace was
fed with nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) (Fontenot et al., 1977~. Apple pomace
fed with urea or biuret, or a combination of these, lowered feed con-
sumption and increased body weight losses when compared to corn silage
and NPN, and also when compared to apple pomace and protein supple-
ment. Feeding apple pomace and NPN had several serious detrimental
effects including high incidence of dead, weak, or deformed calves (Bov-
ard et al., 19771. No explanation has been given for the effects of feeding
apple pomace and NPN. Reproductive problems were not encountered
when feeding apple pomace with protein supplements. Feeding apple
pomace with NPN in any form should be avoided.
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40 UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS
Cacao Processing Wastes
The factors that limit cacao processing wastes as feed are theobromine
(0.75 to 1.3 percent in shell) and caffeine (Chats, 19531. Plain chocolate
contains 3 percent theobromine and 0.1 percent caffeine (Curtis and Grif-
fiths, 19721. Chatt (1953) reported adverse effects if theobromine intake
exceeds 0.025 g/kg body weight. In horses, theobromine intake at the
level of 0.027 g/kg body weight has caused death. No waste containing
theobromine should be fed to racehorses because it may cause reactions
similar to doping.
Cacao shells should only be fed to mature cattle at a maximum level
of 2.5 percent of the diet or a maximum of 0.907 kg/day. It should not
be fed to pigs, poultry, or calves because the cumulative effect is detri-
mental (Chats, 19531. Calves fed 5 to 10 percent chocolate waste exhibited
hyperexcitability, exaggerated gaits, and excessively alert appearance; one
calf died (Curtis and Griffiths, 19721.
SUMMARY
Many researchers emphasize the variability of food processing wastes.
The reasons for this variability are the variability of the raw food material
being processed, the differences in production processes employed by
different plants, and the different food products produced from the same
raw material.
Most of the food processing wastes have substantial nutritional value.
A characteristic of most of these wastes is the high moisture, which results
in high transportation and dehydration costs per unit of nutrient. Fruit and
vegetable processing wastes are generally low in protein and may be
limited in energy value; they are probably best suited for feeding to rum-
inants. Animal processing wastes are generally high in protein, and the
protein is usually high in quality. Feeding of wastes usually does not
adversely affect animal performance if appropriate levels are included in
the diet.
Wastes can be processed by dehydration, but frequently this is not
economically feasible. For many wastes, ensiling appears to be feasible.
High-moisture materials should be combined with drier materials for good
ensiling; the dry materials could consist of poor quality hay or crop res-
idues.
Although caution should be exercised, the feeding of food processing
wastes does not appear to pose a serious threat to animal and human
health. Pesticide levels need to be monitored. Caution should be used not
to feed apple pomace in combination with nonprotein nitrogen to avoid
OCR for page 41
Industrial Food Processing Wastes 41
reproductive problems. Wastes such as cacao processing waste, which
may contain harmful levels of certain drugs, should be limited to safe
levels.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
food processing
