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Understanding and Preventing Violence - Volume 3: Social Influences
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Index
A
Acquaintanceship. See Peer relationships;
Victim-offender dynamics, relationships
Adolescents. See Youth
African Americans. See Black population
Age, 2
and domestic violence, 18
and gender differences, 298-300, 303, 304
and marital violence, 143, 144-145, 201-202
and neighborhood density, 55
of offenders, 18-19, 21-22, 28
and victimization risk, 7-8, 11-12, 13, 303
see also Delinquency and status offenses;
Developmental psychology;
Youth
Aggression
and alcohol, 381-390 passim
animal studies, 378-390 passim
developmental studies, 325-328
gender roles and differences, 295, 325-331, 337-338
Agonistic behavior, 378, 380-381
Alcohol use and abuse, 2, 37, 38, 377-378, 381-390, 406-407
animal studies, 381-389 passim
and assault, 32, 384
dose-effect relationships, 382-385, 390
environmental factors, 381, 382, 385, 388-389, 390
gender differences, 385-386
and homicide, 384, 386
hormonal mechanisms, 382, 385-386, 390
and marital violence, 188-192, 201, 384
neurological effects, 377, 406, 407
neurological mechanisms, 381, 382, 386-387, 390
personality traits, 387-388
by victims, 32, 389, 390, 406
and violent crime, 384
see also Bars
Amphetamines, 378, 380, 394-399, 407
Androgens
and alcohol, 385
Animal models, 378-381
alcohol effects, 381-389 passim
drug effects, 390-406 passim
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Antipsychotic medications, 398-399, 406
Antisocial personality disorder and alcohol abuse, 387-389, 390
Arousal and marital violence, 223-224
Arrest
blood alcohol levels at, 384
domestic and marital violence cases, 125-126, 129, 226-231, 249, 259
gender differences, 296-301, 312-314, 320, 321-322
race differences, 20-21
Assault, 6, 13
and age, 8, 18
and alcohol use, 32, 384
and drug use, 396, 402
gender differences, 8, 9, 19, 298, 300, 302
and marital status, 10
offenders as victims, 31, 32-34
race differences, 9-10, 20, 21
and social class, 11, 24
victim-offender relationship, 35
see also Domestic violence;
Marital violence;
Rape and sexual assault
Australia
alcoholism studies, 384, 389
victimization studies, 7
B
Bars, 16, 32, 40, 62, 388
Beer, 385
Benzodiazepine and receptors, 386, 390
Biological factors, 295, 324-325, 352.
See also Genetic factors;
Hormonal mechanisms;
Neurological mechanisms
Black population, 6, 9-10, 20-21, 36, 64, 352
and family disruption, 72-73
homicides, 6, 9, 351
and imprisonment of women, 344-345
and marital homicide, 174-175
poverty concentration of, 69-70, 71-72, 88
Brain. See Neurological mechanisms
Brain damage
and alcohol, 386-387
Bystanders, 2
C
Canada
alcoholism studies, 384, 389
victimization studies, 16
Cannabis, 401-403
Careers in violence, 1, 28, 29, 90
community studies, 85
gender differences, 295, 316-318
marital abuse, 151-152, 212-216, 250, 253-255
Case-control methodology, 94n:29, 259
Catecholamines and receptors, 380, 386
Cats, 381, 390, 392, 395, 401
Census data, 79-80
Central nervous system. See Neurological mechanisms
Chicago, Ill., 44, 48-49, 51, 62, 87
Child abuse and neglect, 26-27, 28, 130
and alcohol use, 384
gender differences, 311
and gender effects on criminal career choices, 332-333
historic movements against, 123
and marital violence, 147-148, 149-150, 192-195, 202, 215-216
protective factors, 27
and public policy, 116
Children. See Child abuse and neglect;
Developmental psychology;
Juvenile justice system;
Youth
Cities. See Metropolitan areas
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Class. See Poverty and low income;
Socioeconomic status
Clonidine, 392
Cocaine, 278, 396, 399-401, 406, 407.
See also Crack cocaine
Code enforcement, 87, 89
Community institutions and organizations, 59, 76
Community-level risk factors, 1, 2-3, 29, 43-64, 75-83, 86, 89-90
family structure, 49, 55-57, 60, 72-73
housing and population density, 3, 49, 54-55, 71
marital violence, 173-174, 176
opportunity structures in, 73-75, 89
and public policy, 86-89, 90
Shaw and McCay model, 44-46, 47, 51, 53, 63
see also Cultural factors;
Ecological factors;
Mobility and community change;
Poverty and low income;
Race and ethnicity, community heterogeneity;
Social disorganization
Competitive behavior
alcohol effects, 382
drug effects, 395, 398
Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS), 131-132, 135, 137, 139, 165, 181-184, 240, 241
Contextual analysis, 83-85
Correlates of violence. See Community-level risk factors;
Individual-level risk factors;
Situational risk factors
Courts
and gender differences, 340-342
juvenile, 340-341
and marital violence, 236-239, 245-249
and sexual assault cases, 347
Crack cocaine, 378, 399, 400, 407
Criminal justice system
battered women's self-defense pleas, 244-245
and child abuse, 116
and domestic violence, 117, 118
and marital violence, 129-130, 225-249, 255
see also Arrest
Cruising, 32, 33
Cultural factors
and alcohol use, 381, 382, 389, 390, 407
community-level studies, 61-63, 64, 79-80
marital violence, 120-122, 206-208, 222-223, 224-225
see also Ethnography
''Cycle of violence," 26-27, 194-195, 221-222, 250-251, 258
D
Data collection. See Census data;
National Crime Survey;
Official record data;
Self-report studies
Daytime activity, 14-15, 16
Delinquency and status offenses, 3, 21, 76
community-level studies, 44-45, 51-52, 81
and family structure, 25-26
female offenders, 21-22, 24, 314, 340-341
gangs, 24, 31, 58, 64
and social class, 3, 21, 23-25
and victimization risk, 31, 33-34
see also Juvenile justice system;
Youth
Demographic characteristics. See Age;
Gender differences;
Race and ethnicity;
Victim-offender dynamics,
overlap of demographic profiles
Density
of housing and population, 3, 49, 54-55, 71
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of peer relationships, 58, 59
Dependency issues, 209
Deprivation. See Poverty and low income
Deterrence, 339-340
Developmental psychology
and alcohol abuse, 388, 390
and drug abuse, 393, 407
effects of witnessing marital violence, 26, 194-195, 201, 203, 211-212, 256, 258
gender differences, 325-328
Disorder and disorganization. See Social disorganization
Divorce and separation, 10, 25, 70-71
Dogs, 382
Domestic violence, 1, 115-118, 130-132, 239-244, 250-260
and alcohol use, 384, 289
desistance from, 252-253
gender differences, 311
historic movements against, 122-124
police policies, 125-126
see also Child abuse and neglect;
Marital violence
Dopamine and receptors, 392, 398-399
Drinking. See Alcohol use and abuse; Bars
Drug abuse, 2, 37-38, 377-378, 406-407
animal studies, 390-406 passim
and gender, 339
neurological effects, 377, 378, 406
violent crime related to obtaining drugs, 38, 377, 393, 394
Drug dealing, 32, 38, 377, 393, 399, 400, 401, 403
E
Ecological factors, 41-42.
See also Community-level risk factors
"Ecological fallacy," 45, 80
"Ecstasy," 394
Educational achievement and attachment, 27-29
Educational attainment, 11
and marital violence, 147, 149
Electroencephalogram (EEG), 387
Employment status
and victimization risk, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
of women, and offending, 331
see also Unemployment
Endocrinologic mechanisms. See Hormonal mechanisms
England, victimization studies, 7
Environmental factors, 324-325
and alcohol, 381, 382, 385, 388-389, 390
animal studies, 379-380
see also Community-level risk factors;
Situational risk factors
Ethnicity. See Race and ethnicity
Ethnography, 61-63, 79, 86, 252
"Eve," 394
Event-related potentials (ERPs), 387
Experimental research. See Laboratory experiments (human)
F
Family income. See Income levels
Family structure and dynamics, 25-27, 28, 29, 89, 115-116, 326
and alcohol use, 388-389
community-level studies, 49, 55-57, 60, 72-73
and public policy, 116-117, 128-129
social control models of, 128-129
see also Child abuse and neglect;
Domestic violence;
Marital violence
Feedback effects, 75-78
Female-headed families, 57
Females, 9, 294, 331-335, 350-352
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delinquency, 21-22, 24, 314, 340-341
in gangs, 24, 318-320, 351
gun ownership, 76
homicide offending, 19, 20, 298, 300, 309-310
offense rates, 298-301, 312-315, 329-330
see also Feminist theory and activism;
Gender differences;
Gender roles;
Marital violence;
Rape and sexual assault
Feminist theory and activism
responses to marital violence, 116, 117, 124-125, 126, 127-128, 238
and role theory, 329-330, 334, 351
Finland, alcoholism studies, 388, 389
Fish, 382, 390, 395, 401, 404
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 385
Friendships. See Peer relationships
Frustration, and marital violence, 223-224
G
Gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA) and receptors, 386, 390, 407
Gangs, 24, 31, 58, 64
community-level studies, 48-49, 60, 61
females in, 24, 318-320, 351
Gender differences, 2, 293-296, 294, 295-296, 324-339, 337-339, 350-354
alcohol effects, 385-386
arrests, 296-301, 312-314, 320, 321-322
careers in violence, 295, 316-318
and criminal justice system, 320-322, 340-345
developmental psychology, 211-212, 325-328
homicides, 6, 8, 19, 36, 298, 300, 315-316, 351
limitations in analysis of, 295, 320-324
marital violence offending and victimization, 167-171, 172, 257, 311, 351
marital violence reporting, 138, 142
and neighborhood density, 55
offense rates and ratios, 19-20, 21-22, 28, 312-315, 320-324
research needs, 294, 295-296, 335-339, 350-354
severity of violence, 9, 36-37, 132, 167, 168, 257, 311, 311-312, 322
victimization, 8-9, 12, 13, 295, 302-310, 315-316, 353-354
Gender identity, 295
Gender roles, 295-296, 331-335, 353
and aggression, 295, 325-331, 337-338
and criminal careers, 331-339
labeling effects, 331-333
and marital violence, 202-203, 329
Genetic factors
alcohol abuse, 387, 390, 406, 407
drug abuse, 406
Gentrification, 52
Gonadotropic hormones, 385
Great Britain, victimization studies, 16, 17, 32-33, 60
Guardians, 40, 55
absence of, 13, 32, 56
Guns, 38, 74-75, 76
H
Hallucinogens, 377, 378, 401-406, 407
animal studies, 380
Hamsters, 391, 402
Heroin, 391, 393, 406
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Hispanic population, 172, 175
Homicides, 6, 64
and age, 8, 18
and alcohol use, 384, 386
community-level studies, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 51, 67-70
and drug use, 396, 400
gender differences, 6, 8, 19, 36, 298, 300, 315-316, 351
by marital violence victims, 163, 199-201, 218-221, 244-245
race differences, 9, 351
of spouses and partners, 117, 158-164, 166, 174-176, 199-201
third-party involvement, 40
victim-offender relationship, 35
and youth, 90-91n:4, 384
Hormonal mechanisms, 324-325, 352
of alcohol, 382, 385-386, 390
of opiates, 392-393
Housing, and public policy, 87, 90
Housing and population density, 3, 49, 54-55, 71
(5-HT) receptors. See Serotonin (5-HT) receptors
5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), 386
I
Ice. See Methamphetamine
Imprisonment, and gender differences, 342-344
Income levels
and marital violence, 143, 145, 202
and victimization risk, 10-11, 13
Individual-level risk factors, 1, 2, 3, 80, 89, 90
marital violence, 201-206, 221-225, 240-241
in offending, 2, 17-29
in victimization, 2, 6-17
see also Age;
Gender differences;
Lifestyle-routine activity theories;
Marital status;
Personality traits;
Race and ethnicity;
Socioeconomic status
Injuries, 9, 38
domestic violence, 116, 117, 131, 156-157, 176-180
Inner city
abandonment of, 69, 76, 77
and delinquency, 44
and marital violence, 143, 145, 172
Institutions. See Community institutions and organizations
Intergenerational violence, 26-27, 194-195, 221-222, 250-251, 258
Interracial violence, 36
Intimacy, 209
Intimates, violence between. See Marital violence
J
Juvenile justice system, and gender differences, 340-341
Juveniles. See Delinquency and status offenses;
Youth
L
Labeling, and gender roles, 331-333
Laboratory experiments (human), 379-380, 381
alcohol effects, 382, 388
amphetamine effects, 395
cannabis effects, 402
see also Animal models
Laws and statutes
affecting sexual assault cases, 347-350
and child abuse, 116
and marital violence, 122-124, 125, 166
Leisure activity, 73-74
Lifestyle-routine activity theories, 2, 13-17, 41-42, 73-74, 77, 91-92n:14
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and gender differences, 315-316
and violent subculture theory, 31
Longitudinal studies, 84-85
LSD, 403-404, 407
Luteinizing hormone (LH), 385
M
Macrolevel risk factors. See Community-level risk factors;
Metropolitan areas;
Research activities and needs
Males, 36, 293, 294
victimization risk, 8, 9
see also Gender differences;
Gender roles;
Marital violence
Marijuana. See Cannabis
Marital status, 2, 25, 143, 146, 153
and victimization risk, 10, 12, 13, 16, 56
Marital violence, 116, 117-118, 130-132, 142-151, 239-244, 250-260
and alcohol abuse, 188-192, 201, 384
careers in, 151-152, 212-216, 250, 253-255
and child abuse, 147-148, 149-150, 192-195, 202, 215-216
criminal justice policy, 129-130, 225-249, 255
cross-cultural studies, 120-122
cultural factors, 206-208, 222-223, 224-225
definitions, 118-119
desistance from, 151-152, 213, 252-253
deterrence and intervention, 129, 228-233, 241, 242, 253, 259
effects on children, 26, 194-195, 201, 203, 211-212, 256
feminist responses to, 116, 117, 124-125, 126, 127-128
gender differences, 167-171, 172, 257, 311, 351
historical policies, 122-124
homicides, 117, 158-164, 166, 174-176, 199-201
homicides by victims, 163, 199-201, 218-221, 244-245
offender characteristics, 185-197, 202-203
power motivation in, 208-210, 223-224
and public policy, 117-118, 122-127, 128-130, 225-249, 255
and rape, 116, 164-166
rationalization of, 216-218, 258
research needs, 258-260
risk factors, 201-206, 221-225, 240-241
social controls, 128-129, 205, 248-249
and stranger violence, 196-197, 204-205, 213, 214, 215-216, 251-252
survey results, 133-156, 171-174
theories of, 249-252
treatment interventions, 236-239, 255-256
victim characteristics, 197-199, 203-204
victim empowerment, 128, 210-211, 256-257, 260
MDA, 394
MDMA, 394
Mediation, 40
Men. See Gender differences;
Gender roles;
Males;
Marital violence
Mescaline, 404
Methadone, 391, 392, 393-394
Methamphetamine ("ice"), 378, 394, 396
Methodological limitations
in domestic violence studies, 132, 133
ecological fallacy, 45, 80
in gender analyses, 295, 320-324
in macrolevel analysis, 65-67, 75
of offender data, 17-18, 22, 23, 24-25, 29
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in social class measurement, 24
use of official record data, 46-47
victimization studies, 35, 42
victim resistance data, 39
Metropolitan areas, 43, 305
opportunity structures in, 73-75, 89
Mice, 382, 383, 385, 388, 389, 390, 391, 395, 400, 401, 402, 404, 405
Microlevel risk factors. See Situational risk factors
Minority groups. See Black population;
Race and ethnicity
Mobility and community change, 3, 89
community-level studies, 44, 49, 50, 51-53, 60, 63, 64
Models and modeling
and gender differences, 295
see also Animal models
Monkeys, 325, 379, 382, 383, 385, 386, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 395, 396, 398, 399, 401, 403, 404, 405
Morphine, 390
Multicollinearity, 66-67
Municipal services, 87, 90
Murder. See Homicides
N
Naloxone, 391
Naltrexone, 391
Narcotics. See Drug abuse;
Opiates
National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, 115
National Crime Survey (NCS), 7, 15, 47, 90n:2
data on offenders, 17-18, 22
and gender differences, 302-310
marital violence data, 133, 152-156, 167, 180-181
and victim-offender relationship, 35
National Family Violence Surveys (NFVS), 133, 134-135, 139-143
National Youth Survey (NYS), 24, 34, 137
Native Americans, and alcohol abuse, 389
Neighborhoods. See Community-level risk factors;
Ecological factors;
Mobility and community change
Neurological mechanisms, 378, 380
of alcohol, 381, 382, 386-387, 390
of amphetamines, 398-399
drug effects, 377, 378, 406
of opiates and withdrawal, 391-392
of PCP, 405-406
Neutralization of violent behavior, 216-218
Nighttime activity, 14-15, 16-17
O
Offenders, 2, 17-29
age of, 18-19, 21-22, 28
alcohol abuse, 384
family structures and processes, 25-27
marital status, 25
marital violence, 185-197, 202-203
sex of, 19-20, 21-22, 28, 312-315, 320-324
as victims, 17, 31-34
see also Careers in violence;
Victim-offender dynamics
Official record data, 17, 35, 46-47
marital violence, 156-158, 180
see also Uniform Crime Reports
OLS (ordinary least squares) regression analysis, 240-241
Opiates, 378, 390-394, 407
animal studies, 380, 390-391
Opportunity structures and theories, 73-75, 89
and gender roles, 331, 338-339
and offenders as victims, 32
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P
Paranoid psychosis, 394, 396, 397, 399
Parents. See Child abuse and neglect;
Family structure and dynamics
Parole, and gender differences, 344-345
"Partialling fallacy," 66
Partner assault. See Marital violence
Patriarchal social organization, and marital violence, 203, 205, 206-208
Peer relationships, 58-59, 90
and alcohol use, 388-389
among youth, 27, 58, 60, 64
density of acquaintanceship, 58, 59
local social networks, 58-59, 76
Peptides, 380, 386, 392
Personality traits
of alcoholics, 387-388
gender-related, 295
of wife-abusive men, 186-188, 202, 214, 223, 224-225
Pharmacology. See Alcohol use and abuse;
Drug abuse
Phencyclidine (PCP), 404-406, 407
Pigeons, 395, 401
Police
and marital violence, 125-126, 210, 226-233, 249
and sexual assault, 308-309, 345-347
as source of data bias, 46-47, 305, 338
see also Reports to police
Policy. See Public policy
Population density. See Housing and population density
Poverty and low income, 3, 5, 88, 89
community-level studies, 44-45, 48-50, 52, 60, 63, 66, 67-70
Predatory behavior, 32, 40, 56, 380
Pregnancy, and marital violence, 148, 149, 170, 202, 203
"Principle of homogamy," 13-14, 33, 41
Probation, and gender differences, 342
Prosecution
of marital violence, 129, 233-236, 245-247
of sexual assault cases, 347-350
Psychomotor stimulants, 377
Public housing, 54, 87, 88-89
Public perception, of domestic violence, 115, 116-117, 258
Public policy
community-level orientation, 86-89, 90
family violence, 116-117, 128-129
and gender differences, 293, 339-350
victim support and rights, 117, 126, 127, 255
Public transportation, 16, 17
Puritan era, 122-123
"Purse snatching," 91n:6
R
Race and ethnicity, 9-10, 12, 20-22, 28, 82-83, 85, 293, 352
and age, 10, 21-22
community heterogeneity, 3, 44, 53-54, 64
crossover violence, 36
disaggregation in macrolevel research, 71-73
and gender, 6, 9, 10, 21-22, 309-310, 337-338, 352
and homicide, 36, 309-310
and homicide of spouses and partners, 160-162
and imprisonment, 344-345
and marital violence, 143, 144, 160-162, 172-173
and neighborhood density, 55
and social class, 24
see also Black population
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Rape and sexual assault, 6, 8-9, 19, 22, 302, 303
and age, 8
community-level studies, 70-71
and education, 11
and income level, 11
race differences, 9, 20, 21
and resistance by victim, 39
of spouses and partners, 116, 164-166
and substance use, 384, 402
treatment of victims, 130, 345-350
victim-offender relationship, 35, 302-303, 308
Rats, 380, 381, 382, 383, 385, 386, 388, 389, 390, 391, 395, 399, 401, 402, 404, 405
Relationships. See Child abuse and neglect;
Domestic violence;
Family structure and dynamics;
Marital violence;
Peer relationships;
Victim-offender dynamics,
relationships
Reports to police
and gender bias, 305, 307, 320-321, 338
marital violence, 173-174, 175-176
and offenders as victims, 31-32
sexual assault, 345-346
Research activities and needs
child abuse, 116
community-level studies, 46-64, 75-83
contextual analysis, 83-85
cross-level misspecification, 75, 80-83
desistance, 252-253
domestic and marital violence, 117-118, 130-132, 239-244, 250-260
ethnography, 61-63, 79, 86, 252
and feedback effects, 75-78
gender differences, 294, 295-296, 324-339, 350-354
interpretation problems, 75-83
lifestyle-routine activities theories, 13-17, 41-42
longitudinal studies, 84-85
mediating community processes, 75, 78-80
metropolitan-level studies, 64-75
multilevel analyses of risk factors, 1-2, 3-5, 75, 80-86, 89-90
racial disaggregation, 71-73
third-party involvement, 40
victimization, 6-12
victim resistance, 39-40
see also Animal models;
Laboratory experiments (human);
Methodological limitations;
Self-report studies
Retaliation by victims, 2, 31, 40
Retrospective studies, 254-255
Risk factors. See Community-level risk factors;
Individual-level risk factors;
Situational risk factors
Robbery, 6, 11, 13, 28, 38
and age, 8, 18, 19
community-level studies, 47, 70-71
gender differences, 8, 9, 19, 298, 302
race differences, 9, 20-21
and resistance by victim, 39
victim-offender relationship, 35
"Rule of thumb," 123, 261n:4
S
Scandinavia, alcoholism studies, 384, 387
Segregation effects, 69-70, 88
Self-defense and resistance, 2, 38-40
homicides by battered women as, 126, 244-245
see also Retaliation by victims
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Self-report studies, 17, 23, 47
and gender differences, 310-311, 323-324
marital violence, 181-184
Sentencing, gender differences in, 340-342
Serotonin (5-HT) receptors
alcohol effects, 386, 390, 407
drug effects, 403
Severity of violence, 8
in domestic violence, 132, 141-142, 150, 167, 168, 176-178, 257, 311
gender differences, 9, 36-37, 132, 167, 168, 257, 311-312, 322
and presence of weapon, 38, 40
and resistance by victim, 39-40
and third-party involvement, 40
Sex. See Females;
Gender differences;
Gender roles;
Males
Sexual violence. See Rape and sexual assault
"Shadow cultures," 63
Shaw and McCay model, 44-46, 47, 51, 53, 63
Situational risk factors, 1, 2, 3, 29, 30-42, 89, 90
in homicides of spouses and partners, 162-164
see also Alcohol use and abuse;
Drug abuse;
Ecological factors;
Third parties' involvement;
Victim-offender dynamics;
Weapons
Social control, 128-129
marital violence, 128-129, 205, 248-249
Social controls, 76, 79
community-level studies, 45, 58
Social disorganization, 76, 79, 89-90
community-level studies, 45, 57-62, 63, 64
and public policy, 87-90
Social judgment theory, and homicides by abused women, 219-221
Social networks, 58-59, 60, 76, 80, 87
and marital violence, 208
Social services, 116, 129
Socioeconomic status, 2, 7, 10-12
of offenders, 23-25, 28
see also Educational attainment;
Employment status;
Income levels;
Poverty and low income;
Unemployment
South Africa, alcoholism studies, 389
Southern states, homicide rates, 64
Spousal abuse. See Marital violence
Stability of neighborhoods. See Mobility and community change
Status offenses. See Delinquency and status offenses
Statutes. See Laws and statutes
Steroids, 380, 386
Subculture of violence theory, 31-34, 64, 80
and community-level factors, 61-63, 93n:24
Substance abuse. See Drug abuse
Suburbs, marital violence rates, 145
Surveys. See Longitudinal studies;
National Crime Survey;
National Family Violence Surveys;
National Youth Survey
Sweden, alcoholism studies, 389
T
Teenagers. See Youth
Television viewing, 73-74
Terrorism, 356n:11
Testosterone, 385, 390, 392-393
THC. See Cannabis
Theft, 6, 15
Third parties' involvement, 2, 40
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Treatment interventions, marital violence, 236-239, 255-256
Tribal societies, alcohol use studies, 389
Turnover. See Mobility and community change
U
Unemployment, 11, 12, 13, 50
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), 6, 153, 354-355n:4
and gender differences, 296-301, 302, 305, 309
Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHRs), 159
United Kingdom, alcoholic offender studies, 384
Urban areas. See Metropolitan areas
Urban renewal, 87-88
V
Validity
of animal models, 379-381
of gender role and identity constructs, 295
of marital violence research, 180-181, 182-184
Victim-offender dynamics, 2, 30
overlap of demographic profiles, 4, 30-34
relationships, 34-37
and resistance by victim, 38-40
Victims and victimization, 2, 6-17
and age, 7-8, 11-12, 13, 303
alcohol use, 32, 389, 390, 406
criminal justice emphasis on, 117, 126-127
domestic violence issues, 117, 126-127
gender differences, 8-9, 12, 13, 295, 302-310, 315-316, 353-354
marital status, 10, 12, 13, 16, 56
marital violence, 197-199, 203-204
multilevel analyses, 90
offenders as, 17, 31-34
resistance and self-defense, 2, 38-40
retaliation by, 2, 31, 40
rights of, 117, 126, 127
self-defense homicides, 126, 244-245
Voluntary organizations community, 59
W
Weapons, 2, 9, 38, 40, 73, 74-75, 76, 400
Weckamine, 394
Wife battering. See Marital violence
Withdrawal effects, 380, 391-393, 394
Women. See Females;
Feminist theory and activism;
Marital violence;
Rape and sexual assault
Y
Youth
and cocaine, 400
and homicide, 90-n:4, 384
neighborhood supervision of, 56, 60, 64
peer relationships, 27, 58, 60, 64
victimization risk, 8, 14, 33-34
see also Delinquency and status offenses
