NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the panel responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
The program described in this report is supported by cooperative agreement No. 14-35-0001-30475 between the Minerals Management Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the National Academy of Sciences and by interagency cooperative agreement No. DTMA91-94-G-00003 between the Maritime Administration of the Department of Transportation and the National Academy of Sciences.
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Copyright 1994 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Cover: The Argo Merchant, photograph courtesy of the U.S. Coast Guard
COMMITTEE ON MARINE SALVAGE ISSUES
MEMBERS
GORDON W. PAULSEN, Chairman,
Healy & Baillie, New York, New York
PETER F. BONTADELLI,
Office of Oil Spill Prevention & Response, California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento
J. HUNTLY BOYD, JR.,
Booz-Allen, Hamilton, Inc., Arlington, Virginia
KENNETH J. FULLWOOD,
Maritime Relations and Environmental Affairs, Safety and Nautical Services, Mobil Shipping and Transportation Company, Fairfax, Virginia
RICHARD F. LEE,
Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, Savannah, Georgia
J.H. (Mick) LEITZ,
J.H. Leitz & Associates, Inc., Portland, Oregon
JOHN H. ROBINSON,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Retired, Santa Barbara, California
NINA SANKOVITCH,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, New York
ROGER E. VAN DUZER,
Marine Operations, Shell Marine Department, Shell Oil Company, Houston, Texas
JOHN A. WITTE,
Donjon Marine Co., Inc., Hillside, New Jersey
LIAISONS
KEN KEANE,
Marine Environmental Protection Division, Office of Marine Safety, Security and Environmental Protection, United States Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.
WILLIAM PECK,
Salvage and Diving, Naval Sea Systems Command, U.S. Navy, Arlington, Virginia
STAFF
CHARLES A. BOOKMAN, Director
RICHARD WILLIS, Consultant
AURORE BLECK, Administrative Assistant
MARINE BOARD
MEMBERS
RICHARD J. SEYMOUR, Chairman,
Offshore Technology Research Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
JERRY A. ASPLAND,
Arco Marine, Inc., Long Beach, California
ANNE AYLWARD,
National Commission on Intermodal Transportation, Alexandria, Virginia
ROBERT G. BEA,
NAE, University of California, Berkeley
MARK Y. BERMAN,
Amoco Production Company, Houston, Texas
BROCK B. BERNSTEIN,
EcoAnalysis, Ojai, California
JOHN W. BOYLSTON,
Argent Marine Operations Inc., Solomons, Maryland
SARAH CHASIS,
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., New York, New York
CHRYSSOSTOMOS CHRYSSOSTOMIDIS,
Sea Grant College Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
JAMES M. COLEMAN,
NAE, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG,
NAS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
MARTHA GRABOWSKI,
LeMoyne College and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Cazenovia, New York
ASHISH J. MEHTA,
University of Florida, Gainesville
M. ELISABETH PATE-CORNELL,
Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Terman Engineering Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California
DONALD W. PRITCHARD,
NAE, Marine Sciences Research Center, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Severna Park, Maryland
STEPHANIE R. THORNTON,
Coastal Resources Center, San Francisco, California
ROD VULOVIC,
Sea-Land Service, Inc., Elizabeth, New Jersey
ALAN G. YOUNG,
Fugro-McClelland BV, Houston, Texas
STAFF
Charles A. Bookman, Director
Donald W. Perkins, Associate Director
Doris C. Holmes, Staff Associate
PREFACE
BACKGROUND
A major concern in promoting safe maritime commerce is the capability to effectively respond to marine casualties that threaten the environmental and economic resources of U.S. waterways and coastlines. Preventing marine accidents should be a perpetual goal of shipping interests and organizations, but the ability to react adequately after an accident to save all or part of an imperiled ship or cargo is an important element in preventing any environmental or economic harm. That capability—to render services to save maritime property, defined as "salvage"—is the focus of this study.
The National Research Council (NRC) addressed the U.S. capability to respond to an imperiled ship in 1982 and subsequently published a report entitled Marine Salvage in the United States (NRC, 1982). The study found, among other things, that the traditional salvage company, with dedicated vessels and personnel, was disappearing from the commercial salvage market due to high maintenance costs and fewer marine accidents. This trend has continued into the 1990s, along with a corresponding increase in the occasional use of general marine contractors for salvage. In addition, significant changes and pressures have emerged in both the environmental and the regulatory arenas during the past decade, heightening concern over the readiness in the United States to respond to a stricken ship and save the ship and all or part of its cargo.
SCOPE OF STUDY
The Committee on Marine Salvage Issues was established in April 1992, at the request of the U.S. Navy Supervisor of Salvage, to examine the issue of jettisoning cargo from a stranded vessel in order to lighten the ship and save it, thus averting further pollution. Subsequently, in response to a request from the U.S. Coast Guard, the committee's charter was expanded to include updating the 1982 Marine Board report (NRC, 1982), and in so doing to evaluate and make recommendations concerning national salvage capability.
The committee included shipping and salvage experts, legal and environmental protection specialists, and scientists and engineers (biographies of the members appear in Appendix A). Care was taken to ensure a balance of experience with the multiple interests related to this issue, including environmental, economic, and regulatory aspects. The committee was assisted by liaison representatives of the sponsoring federal agencies, the Navy, and the Coast Guard. The principle guiding the committee, consistent with NRC policy, was not to exclude any information, however biased, that might accompany input vital to the study, but to seek balance and fair treatment.
To fulfill its mission, the committee held a one-day symposium on the issue of jettisoning cargo from a stranded vessel in Washington, D.C., on February 23, 1993. Invited participants represented the U.S. Congress, federal and state agencies, and the fields of marine environmental protection, salvage, vessel operations, admiralty
law, and marine insurance. A report based on the symposium (see Appendix B) has been published separately (NRC, 1994).
To carry out the second part of its mission, the reassessment of U.S. salvage capability, the committee undertook a number of information-gathering tasks. First, using updated accident scenarios from the 1982 report, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to solicit input on the status of salvage response efforts from salvage specialists and responsible state and federal agencies (respondents are listed in Appendix C). The committee analyzed the information it received and identified key issues for further review. Second, the committee held regional meetings to evaluate the salvage capabilities on the East, West, and Gulf coasts. Individuals with specific expertise were invited to focus on specific technologies and regional issues (participants in the meetings of the Committee on Marine Salvage Issues are listed in Appendix D). The committee also examined what the salvage industry's response would be today to the accident scenarios in the 1982 report. Finally, the committee evaluated all the information acquired, including its assessments of more than a dozen key issues and materials from the jettisoning symposium, to determine current U.S. salvage readiness and capability. A quantitative analysis of salvage equipment and personnel resources was beyond the committee's means. The review of the salvage posture was limited to activities on the East, Gulf, and West coasts, due to time and cost constraints and the determination that changes in those areas would be representative of other areas of the country. This limitation notwithstanding, some salvage incidents examined by the committee occurred in the Great Lakes, and some of the U.S. professional salvage capability assessed in the study is located in this region.
ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
This final report synthesizes all the information gathered by the committee:
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Chapter 1 reviews the importance of salvage in preventing marine pollution and in maintaining ports and waterways.
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Chapter 2 outlines the major changes that have occurred in the industry since the 1982 report and assesses regional salvage readiness and capability.
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Chapter 3 examines major issues facing the industry and alternative approaches for addressing the various concerns.
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Chapter 4 presents the committee's major conclusions and recommendations.
The report is intended to assist federal and state governments and the private sector in determining the policy, regulatory, and economic actions needed to ensure that the United States can respond effectively to marine accidents and prevent or minimize environmental and economic damage. It is hoped that the report also will help educate the public, the media, and all who are involved in any aspects of marine salvage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The committee greatly appreciates the valuable input and insight provided by the participants in the symposium and the regional meetings and by the respondents to the questionnaire. Jerry Aspland, Arco Marine, Inc. and a member of the Marine Board, served as the Marine Board's liaison with the committee. The committee also wishes to acknowledge the valuable input of reviewers, who did an exceptional job of providing specific suggestions and revisions; of the liaisons from federal agencies, who provided extensive information and support; and of Marine Board staff members, who provided unwavering support.
TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 2-1 |
Recommendations and Conclusions from the 1982 NRC Report and Action to Date. |
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Figure 3-1 |
Unified Command Structure. |
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Figure B-1 |
Decision Tree. |
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Figure I-1 |
Wind and sea scale for fully arisen sea. |
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Figure I-2 |
East Coast Onshore Wave Height Probability Distribution. |
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Figure I-3 |
U.S. Gulf Coast Onshore Wave Height Probability Distribution. |
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Figure I-4 |
California Onshore Wave Height Probability Distribution. |
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Figure I-5 |
Pacific Northwest Onshore Wave Height Probability Distribution. |
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Figure I-6 |
Gulf of Alaska Onshore Wave Height Probability Distribution. |
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Figure I-7 |
80- to 280-MDWT tanker wave drift force. |
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Figure I-8 |
80- to 280-MDWT tanker wind force. |
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Figure I-9 |
Tug power estimate required to hold 80-MDWT fully loaded tanker. |
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Figure I-10 |
Tug power estimate required to hold 140-MDWT fully loaded tanker. |
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Figure I-11 |
Tug power estimate required to hold 280-MDWT fully loaded VLCC. |