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OCR for page 100
Assessment strategies
for Inqui~-Centered
science
Assessing science through paper-andjencit tests is
akin to assessing a basketball pZayer's skills ~ viny
a written test. We may find out what someone knows
about basketball, but we won't know how well that
person plays the game.
-George Hein and Sabra Price,
Active Assessments for Active Science, 1994
Principals and science coordina-
tors often hear teachers lament that traclitional assessments simply
don't work in inquiry-centere(1 classrooms. "Paper-and-pencil tests
only give information on part of what we teach," they say. "We
need something else to use to give us a better picture of what our
students know and are able to do."
Traditional tests usually multiple-choice, short-answer tests
given at the end of a unit of study cannot assess all the richness
of learning that takes place in the inquiry-centerecI science cIass-
room. A multiple-choice test cannot effectively evaluate whether
loo
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Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
students have learned how to design an experiment, make accu-
rate observations and measurements, analyze data, and reach rea-
sonable conclusions. Multiple-choice tests are also not very effec-
tive in assessing student understanding of concepts such as
buoyancy or the role bees play in the life cycle of plants. Measur-
ing students' grasp of these skills and concepts requires alternative
forms of assessment.
This chapter outlines several ways to structure assessment ac-
tivities that can effectively determine each student's progress to-
waro the attainment of science inquiry skills and concepts. To il-
Justrate each form of assessment, we have included examples from
three curriculum programs Full Option Science System (FOSS),
Insights, and Science and Technology for Children (STC).
Throughout the chapter, we will concentrate on how the teacher
can assess student learning on a daily basis.
The chapter also describes strategies that can be used to as-
sess the science program as a whole. We present guidelines school
districts can use to determine how the implementation of the sci-
ence program is proceeding.
Assessing Student Learning
Just as it is challenging to institute inquiry-basea instruction in the
classroom, so is it difficult to incorporate new assessment strategies
into classroom evaluation. For this reason, it is reassuring to know
that teachers need not create new assessment strategies on their
own. Many of the national curriculum programs include such
strategies in their teacher's guides. These suggestions provide a
. · .
good starting point.
Most teachers Gina it helpful to begin to use the new assess-
ment strategies slowly and carefully. It is neither necessary nor au-
visable to eliminate traditional testing. In fact, one of the guiding
principles behind assessment is that the more adverse the strate-
gies used, the more the teacher can learn about each student.
Over time, each teacher will discover ways to balance traa-i-tional
tests and alternative assessments to obtain a complete picture of
how well students are progressing.
Although the focus in this section is on assessment in the
classroom, it is important to recognize that assessment is a contro
~o~
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The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
During an informal assessment for a module on ecosystems, a
teacher talks with fQh-grade students about shear observations.
versial issue in science education. Within the classroom, using a
range of assessment tools provides information on both student
learning and future teaching strategies. Within a school district,
however, standardized tests are often used as a means of making
schools accountable for student learning.
Our focus here is on helping teachers develop more effective
strategies for assessing student learning in their classrooms. The
following assessment strategies have been used effectively in many
inquiry-centered science classrooms throughout the country.
Many of them have been incorporated into national science cur-
riculum programs.
Matched Prep and Post-Moduie Assessments
Pre- and post-moclule assessments serve two important functions.
The first is to track how much students have learned cluring the
unit. For example, the teacher could ask a question or assign an
investigation at the beginning of each module to find out how
102
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Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
much students know about the subject. At the end of the module,
students could answer the same question or perform the same in-
vestigation, enabling the teacher to observe how their under-
standing of a subject has grown.
Such assessments can take many forms. For example, many
modules in the STC elementary science curriculum begin with a
brainstorming session during which children are asked what they
know about a subject and what they wouIcl like to learn about it. At
the end of the moclule, they are asked the same questions again,
giving the teacher an opportunity to assess how much students
have learned over the course of the unit.
A pre-moclule assessment can also give the teacher informa-
tion on what questions students are interested in pursuing. As the
class progresses through the unit, the teacher can refer to the pre-
moduTe assessment to further refine teaching strategies. The post-
moduTe data can then be used as a way for the teacher to measure
the success of his or her teaching strategies.
Other examples of pre- and post-module assessments include
having students write about a subject, draw a picture, or perform
a simple experiment. These devices give teachers important "be-
fore-and-after" information. Figure S-] shows examples of pre- and
post-module assessments.
The Insights elementary science program has a more formal
pre-module assessment. Each module in this program begins with
an introductory questionnaire that is linked to the goals of that
moclule. The questionnaire may include content-related questions
as well as questions designed to assess students' problem-solving
abilities. At the end of the module, students complete the ques-
tionnaire again; the two versions of the questionnaire provide
teachers with a written record of students' progress. Younger stu-
dents complete the questionnaire through interviews. Figure S-2
shows part of an introductory questionnaire from the Insight
Reading the Environment module.
Embedded Assessments
These assessments are woven, or embedded, into the instructional
sequence in the module. They may be part of the activities that
naturally occur in a lesson or a logical extension of the lesson's
103
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Change
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Figure 8-1. Pre- and post-module writing samples and drawings
from the sixth-grade module The Technology of Paper (STC)
and the second-~,rade module The Life Cycle of Butterflies (STC)
104
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Assessment strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
science
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105
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The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
Introductory Questionnaire
Name
DIRECTIONS TO STUDENTS
Date
Reading the Environment
Introductory Questionnaire
Answer each question below as completely as possible in the space provided. Use the back of
the paper or an extra sheet if you need more space. In some of the questions, there are words in
italics. If you think you know the meaning of the word (even if you are not sure), try to answer
the question. If you do not know the meaning of the word at all, and cannot even guess, write:
"I do not know this word." If there are any other words (not in italics) whose meaning you do
not know, ask your teacher to explain them.
1. Think of something in your neighborhood that is not living and that has changed in the past
couple of years. In the space below, name it and describe as completely as you can what it
was like in the past, before it changed.
Reading the Environment EDC ~ 7991
Figure 8-2. Introductory questionnaire from the fourth-grade
module Reading the Environment (Insights)
106
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Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
r
Introductory Questlonnalre
2. What evidence do you see that tells you the thing you named in question 1 has changed?
Describe below what this thing is like now. State exactly what the change is that you have
noticed. For example: Where was a change in the street. It has cracks in it. The evidence I
see is a Tack and the street around it is breaking into small pieces. I think it is being worn
down."
3. What do you think caused the change(s) you noted in question 2?
4. Give an example of a fossil and describe what it looks like.
Readino the Environment EDC ~ 1991
107
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The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
central activity. Embedclec! assessments are based on the assump-
tion that assessment and learning are two sides of the same coin.
In fact, many educators assert that from the students' vantage
point, there shouIcl be a seamless flow between instruction and as-
sessment.~ The biggest difference between an embeddecI assess-
ment and other learning activities is that the assessment is de-
signed to enable the teacher to obtain and recorc! information
about student learning.
The following are examples of embecIdec! assessments:
After studying STC's Electric Circuits module for fourth-
graders, students are asked to wire a carciboard house. The ac-
tivity enables the teacher to assess whether students can apply
what they have learned about circuits to a "real-life" situation.
Throughout the FOSS Paper module (a kindergarten unit),
students are invited to engage in discussions that reveal their
understancling of key concepts.
· At the end of STC's f~fth-gracle Food Chemistry module, stu-
dents use tests they learned about in the unit to determine
which nutrients are in a marshmallow.
~Prediction Activities
A prediction is different from a guess because it is based on previ-
ous experience and knowledge of a subject. By asking students to
make predictions at appropriate times, teachers can assess the sci-
ence concepts their students have mastered and how well they can
apply that knowledge to a new situation. For example, cluring a
module on buoyancy (STC's Floating and Sinking), students may be
given an assortment of objects and asked to predict which ones will
float and which will sink. If students consider both weight and vol-
ume in making their predictions, the teacher will know that stu-
dents have gained some understanding of the concept. If they
guess randomly, they are telling the teacher that they have a limit-
ec3 unclerstanding of the concept. In either case, the teacher has
gained valuable information.
foe
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Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
Final Assessments
These assessments are user! at the end of a science unit or moclule.
Although many final assessments include paper-and-pencil tests,
they can take many other forms. Examples of final assessments are
described below.
Hands-on Assessments. This type of assessment provides an
opportunity for teachers to observe how well students can perform
an experiment similar to one they worked on during the module.
Hancis-on assessments allow teachers to see how students ap-
proach a problem, gather data, record results, and draw conclu-
sions from their findings. For example, after experimenting with
water in the FOSS Watermodule, students are given a new problem
that must be solved through experimentation. The Insights mod-
ule Relating the environment has a hands-on assessment in which stu-
dents are asked to design an experiment that will help them de-
cide what kind of stone to use for building in a city where acid rain
is a problem.
Another way to organize hands-on assessments is for the
teacher to set up stations throughout the room that offer a series of
tasks for children to complete. For example, after finishing a moclule
on chemical tests, students may be asked to perform a filtration task
at one table, a mixing task at another, and data analysis at a third
table. By observing how the students go about the tasks, reviewing
the kinds of records they make, and checking their results, the
teacher will gain information about what the students have learned.
This work can be done individually or in cooperative groups.
Paper-and-Pencil Tests. These are questions included at the
end of the unit. The FOSS curriculum divides paper-and-pencil as-
sessments into two categories: pictorial assessments en cl reflective
questions assessments. FOSS pictorial assessments evaluate how
well students can think through problems that require both knowl-
edge and the application of ideas to a new situation. For example,
pictorial assessments from the Water module include figuring out
why a plastic bottle of water left in the car trunk overnight cracked
when the temperature cropped and why water that spilled on the
sidewalk seemed to disappear.
Reflective assessments evaluate how well students can express
109
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The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
themselves in writing, as indicated by the way students respond to
problem-solving questions.
In the STC module Measuring Time, students are asked to graph
hypothetical data, analyze dicta from a graph, ant! discuss in detail
reasons for the moon's phases. Activities such as these encourage stu-
dents to go beyond simply recalling isolated pieces of information
and to think critically in applying knowledge to new situations.
Science Notebooks. Students can be asked to prepare indi-
viclual science notebooks that include all the observations and
records generated during the module. The notebooks may in-
clude stories and poems (see Figure 8-3), record sheets, charts,
tables, and graphs. Drawings also reveal what students have
learned (see Figure S-4~. The teacher should assess the level of
cletail, use of labels, and quality of explanations accompanying
the drawings.
Science notebooks are useful for both teachers and students. Note-
books are a powerful assessment too] for teachers and an effective way
for students to keep a record of what they have clone in the module.
A portfolio is a selected group of student work. Students
themselves can select pieces that they fee] represent significant
learning. Usually, the teacher and students work together to cle-
velop selection criteria, which may include materials that were the
hardest to do or projects that provoked the most learning.
Through this process, students have an opportunity to reflect on
what they've learned.
IntormaZ Assessments
Many teachers also find it helpful to conduct informal assessments
of students' progress. These involve reviewing written materials,
observing students at work, en cl simply walking around the room
and listening to students' conversations. By asking the right ques-
tions, teachers can uncover students' reasoning en cl the steps they
usect to solve pro Stems. ~ ne questions that students ask can also be
a source of information about their unclerstancling. In aclclition,
incliviclual en cl group presentations can give teachers insights into
stuclents' interpretation of what they have learned. Finally, ques-
tions posed by students following presentations can provide op-
portunities to gather important information.
. . . . . an. ..
Rio
OCR for page 111
Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
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Grade 2
Faith Washington
Grade 2
Daniel Hall
Grade 2
rd Show 7 E
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Figure 8-3. Writing samples from the second-grade module Soils (STC)
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The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
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_ )__' _ )eCteL-
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Shaughn Bischoff
Alex Jaeger
Jenny Minnard
Margaret Pace
Emilee Schultz
Julie Wilke
Grade 4
Figure S-4. Student drawings from the fourth-grade module
Motion and Design (STC)
1 1 2
OCR for page 113
Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry- Centered
Science
Documentation and Record Keeping
One of the hardest parts of incorporating alternative assessments
into the inquiry-centered science program is developing an accu-
rate recorcI-keeping system. Many teacher's guides include record-
keeping charts that help teachers focus on the goals of each as-
sessment instrument.
For example, the STC program includes an observation
sheet that teachers may photocopy anti use in evaluating each
student. The sheet highlights each module's key concepts en cl
skills. For one mo(lule, Balancing and Weighing, concepts listed in-
clude the relationship between the amount of weight anct its po-
sition on the balance beam, what is meant by the term "weigh-
ing," and the relationship between weight and volume. Skills
listed include performing simple experiments with a balance
beam, using an equal-arm balance, and applying strategies for
comparing and weighing to solve problems. Alongside each of
these concepts and skills is a space for the teacher to write oh
servations. Figure 8-5 is a sample recording chart from the STC
program. The chief advantages of this chart are that it provides a
structure for teachers to use as they experiment with new assess-
ment strategies and it can be adapted to suit the needs and
record-keeping styles of different teachers.
The FOSS program includes a student worksheet with each of
its assessments. To help teachers interpret the results on these sheets,
the teacher's guicle includes a chart that identifies the purpose of
each question. For example, teachers are told that the purpose of the
question about the cracked water bottle is to give students an oppor-
tunity to explain what happens when water freezes. The purpose of
the question about the water that disappearecl is to determine
whether the students can explain how water evaporates. Figure ~6
shows a sample observation chart from FOSS's Water module.
The Insights program has four parts to its assessment frame-
work: the introductory questionnaire (pre-assessment), the embecl-
cled assessment, the post-moclule assessment, and ongoing assess-
ments throughout the module. The teacher uses student profile
charts to record the ongoing assessments and an evaluation rubric
to inform the analysis of the formal pieces. The rubric ranges from
"0" (no answer or "I don't know") to "5" (a complete and correct re-
sponse). Figure S-7 shows the complete Insights rubric.
113
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The Nuts and
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Change
Blacklin. Master
Balancing and Weighing: Observations of Student Performance
Concepts
· Balance is affected by the amount of weight, the
position of weight, and the position of the fulcrum.
· Weighing is the process of balancing an object
against a certain number of standard units.
· The weight of an object is not determined by its size.
· Equal volumes of different foods will not all have
equal weights: equal weights of different foods will
not all have equal volumes.
Obeenrations
Skills
· Performing simple experiments with balance.
· Applying previous experiences with balancing to
build mobiles.
· Using an equal-ar~n balance to compare and weigh.
· Predicting the serial order for the weights of objects
and foods.
· Applying strategies for comparing and weighing to
solve problems
· Recording results on record sheets, bar graphs, line
plots, data tables, and Venn diagrams.
· Communicating ideas, observations, and experiences
through writing, drawing and discussions
· Reading to learn more about balancing and weighing.
STC / Balancing and Weighing
Figure S-5. Teacher's observation chart from the second-grade
module Balancing and Weighing (STY
~4
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
introductory questionnaire
Assessment Strategies
for Inquir~-Centered
Science
= ~
The Reflective {questions Assessment
The Reflective Questions Assessment is made up of written questions that ask students to describe
and explain events. It takes students about 20 minutes to complete all the questions.
Getting Ready for the Reflective Questions Assessment
Make copies of the two student sheets for this assessment. The entire set of questions can be given at
one sitting. The tasks can be easily completed by students at their own desks. No equipment is
needed.
Doing the Reflective Questions Assessment
Instruct students to read each task carefully. then do what the directions say. In most cases they will
be asked to explain events
.
Recording the Results of the Reflective Questions Assessment
The answer sheet gives answers or reasonable responses to the tasks. Feel free to adjust the ranges
for acceptable answers based on the capabilities of your students.
On the Water Module Reflective Questions Assessment Teacher's Chart, each task in the assessment is
clearly delineated along the top margin. This sheet provides a convenient visual summary of indi-
vidual students' and the class's understanding of water properties and interactions.
The simplest way to use the teacher's chart is to place a check beside each student's name under the
appropriate task. A blank indicates that the student did not complete the task satisfactorily.
| The Water Module REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS ASSE SSMENT Te~tcher's Chart |
Student name
t
3
4
A<
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
.
Change of State .
1.
explolnr Intact of explam~ how wafer
Incang wear ,,r,pontr
Hardness
Water Use bald Water (Ju:
The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
Introductory Questionnaire
Introductory
Questionnaire
Materials
For each student:
· Introductory Questionnaire
· extra paper if desired
NOTE
Win Me exception of words
identified In italics, this is an
assessment of understanding
and experience, not an
assessment of technical
vocabulary. Note which
students are having trouble
with the language of the
questionnaire. They may
need extra help throughout
the module.
Advance Preparation
· Make copies of the Introductory Questionnaire for each
student.
· The questionnaire is intended as a written assessment;
however, if you have students with special needs or
limited English facility, you are encouraged to translate,
paraphrase, or replace it with an interview .
.
Familiarize yourself with the questions so as to be able to
elaborate on them if students have trouble with
particular words.
Evaluating the Introductory Questionnaire
Guidelines to code the level or depth of knowledge the
student has about a concept or skill.
5 - a complete and correct response.
4 - an essentially correct response but one that omits some
detail(s), or underlying explanations, or contains a
slight inaccuracy.
3 - a response that is wrong or skimpy simply because the
student does not know the concept or information.
a naive conception: a response that is logical and
coherent, and explains the data from the student's point
of view, but happens to be scientifically wrong. There
are many examples in history, such as the flat-earth
theory. Note that this is different from an error that is
made Trough mere lack of information.
1- a naive, childish answer, or one that repeats the
question.
O - no answer, or "I don't know."
Education Development Center, Inc.
27
Figure 8-7. Rubric for evaluating the introductory questionnaire in
an Insights module
~6
Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
Assessing the Science Program
In addition to assessing individual student progress with the new
curriculum, school districts need two different kinds of informa-
tion to assess the overall success of the science program. The first,
and by far the most challenging to acquire, is information about
whether the science program is resulting in significant changes in
teaching and in student learning. The National Science Eclucation
Standards address this issue en c! acknowlecige the difficulty in
gathering this information, which needs to include the assessment
of student knowledge and skills over time as well as changes in stu-
dents' attitudes toward science. The second kind of information
that school districts need is a measure of how they are progressing
in their efforts to address each of the five elements of science ed-
ucation reform: curriculum, professional development, materials
support, assessment, and administrative anct community support.
George Hein, director of the Program Evaluation and Re-
search Group at Lesley College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and
evaluator of the National Science Resources Center's (NSRC) Ele-
mentary Science Leadership Tnstitute program, developed five
rubrics that districts can use to assess the progress of their science
programs (Figure 8-~. Each rubric corresponds to one of the ele-
ments of an effective elementary science program. The rubrics
begin at level O (no action has been taken) and end at level 5
(complete implementation). Levels 2 through 4 describe the se-
quence typically followed in establishing a science program: cle-
veloping a plan, initiating a small-scale reform effort, and expand-
ing this effort each year.
Hein, Carol Baldassari, and Laura Hudson used the rubrics
to determine the progress that school district teams that have at-
tencled the NSRC Leadership Institutes have made and to find
out the paths they followecl during their reform efforts. By inter-
viewing each team and applying the rubrics to the responses,
Hein and his colleagues determined that assessment has been the
most clifficult element to implement. Curriculum development
and professional development have been easier to incorporate
and have usually been done first. Establishing a materials support
system has been accomplished as funding en c! administrative
support have permitted.
1 1 7
The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
Five Rubrics Used to Assess the
Progress of Science Programs
Levels of Curriculum Reform
Level 0 Totally textbook-dominated program, no materials.
Level 1 Some (any) inquiry-centered science curriculum units based on
individual school (or teacher) decision.
Level 2 District piloting inquiry-centered science curriculum units in part
of system, with textbooks still dominant.
Level 3 Districtwide plan exists to introduce inquiry-centered science cur-
riculum into entire system and/or early stage of implementation.
Level 4 Considerable progress in implementing inquiry-centered science
curriculum units in entire system and/or evidence that texts are no
longer used or are used primarily as supplements.
Level 5 Systemwide implementation of inquiry-centered elementary sci-
ence program.
Levels of Professional Development Activities
Level 0 No teacher professional development program.
Level 1 Professional development program limited to introduction of hands-
on science curriculum units to some teachers.
Level 2 A plan for professional development for all teachers and/or begin-
ning of development of teacher leaders exists. Evidence of other
activities (workshops, museum, college connections).
Level 3 Implementation of first-level workshops for most or all teachers in
the district. A plan for advanced professional development activi-
ties for teacher leaders exists. Ongoing classroom support for up
to one-half of teachers in district.
Level 4 Implementation of first-level activities for all teachers and provision
for advanced professional development for all teachers. Evidence of
systematic connection between district activities and opportunities
at other institutions (museums, colleges, etc.~. Ongoing classroom
support for most teachers.
Level 5 Funded, coherent, continuous system for staff development articulat-
ed with developmental needs of all teachers, curriculum implementa-
tion, assessment, and other professional development activities.
Figure 8-8
118
Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
~ .. I........ A,..... :~...~....~.....~......~:,.....~:,.... :..~.....~.... hi........ I.. :....~.....~......~..................~......~. :,......: .. ~ hi.. a.... ............,.... C,...... :,....~............... C..........,....~.........
.....
Levels of Development of Centralized Materials Support
Systems
Level O No plans for a materials support system.
Level 1 Recognized need for a materials support system for science, chose
school-based or individual teacher responsibility, or began planning
for center, but plans aborted.
Level 2 Temporary system that includes ordering and refurbishing materi-
als and supplies for pilot classrooms or schools, or in the planning
stage for districtwide system.
Level 3 Beginning to implement systemwide materials support system, but
current system only partial: insufficient staffing, funding, etc.
Level 4 Established districtwide materials support system.
Level 5 Integrated districtwide math/science materials and professional de-
velopment center; a functioning"teacher center."
Levels of Student Assessment
Level O No change, no plan for change.
Level 1 Studying the issue, planning, changes driven by outside forces (new
state mandates).
Level 2 Some use of alternative assessment strategies in individual schools
or by teachers using inquiry-centered curriculum materials. Policy
of acquiring curriculum materials that incorporate active assess
ment strategies.
Level 3 Systematic professional development on assessment and/or teach-
ers developing active assessments.
Level 4 Initiating systemwide implementation of active assessment tied to
grading practices and substituting for traditional, test-based grades.
Level 5 Complete implementation of districtwide active science assessment,
and/or new science assessment is part of large districtwide assess
ment plan.
............................
............
continued on next page
119
The Nuts and
Bolts of
Change
Five Rubrics Used to Assess the
Progress of Science Programs continued
Levels of Partnership Activities
Level O No stakeholders from the community, including scientists or engi-
neers, are working with the district for the sole purpose of sup-
porting its science program.
Level I Some stakeholders (scientists, engineers, parents, etc.) have been
identified, and relationships between them and teachers or princi-
pals in some schools have been initiated.Their purposes may vary,
or their involvement may be short-term or event-specific.
Level 2 Through a formal structure, district seeks to coordinate existing
disparate efforts or to involve new institutions as partners to sup-
port the inquiry-centered science program.
Level 3 Partial plan for district, corporate, and/or university partnerships
has been created and first steps have been initiated.
Level 4 District develops comprehensive plan with partners to secure
community support and financial assistance for systemic reform.
Level 5 Plan is implemented and maintained.
120
Assessment Strategies
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
New assessment strategies are needed for inquiry-centered sci-
ence, because traditional tests cannot assess the wide range of
learning that takes place.
Key strategies include pre- and post-module assessments, embed-
ded assessments, prediction activities, and final assessments.
If teachers are clear about the objective of an assessment, they will
understand why a particular type of assessment is being used. For
example, if a teacher wants to know whether students have learned
how to design an experiment, an appropriate assessment would be
to ask them to solve a problem through experimentation.
Five rubrics one for each element of the science program can
help school districts assess the progress they are making in im-
proving their elementary science programs.
For Further Reading
Cawelti, G., ed. 1993. Challenges and Achievements of American Education: 1993 Year-
book of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria,
Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Hein, G., and S. Price. 1994. Active Assessment for Active Science: A Guide for Elemen-
tary School Teachers. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.
Herman,.T. L., P. R. Aschbacher, and L. Winters. 1992. A Practical Guide to Alter-
nativeAssessment. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curricu-
lum Development.
National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Raizen, S. A., J. B. Baron, A. B. Champagne, E. Haertel, I. V. Mullis, and J. Oakes.
1989. Assessment in Elementary School Science Education. Washington, D.C.: Na-
tional Center for Improving Science Education.
Resnick, L. 1987. Education and Learning to Think. Washington, D.C.:-National
Academy Press.
Rothman, R. 1995. Measuring Up: Standards, Assessment, and School Reform. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shavelson, R. J., G. Baxter, and T. Pine. 1992. "Performance Assessments: Political
Rhetoric and Measurement Reality." Educational Researcher 21 (4~: 22-27.
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