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6
Monitoring
Time-series data can help establish the need for, and evaluate the perfor-
mance of, beach nourishment programs and projects. This chapter discusses the
need for physical, environmental, and economic time-series data and issues sur-
rounding the evaluation of beach nourishment project performance.
OVERVIEW
Monitoring is the systematic collection of physical, environmental, or eco-
nomic time-series data or a combination of these data on a beach nourishment
project in order to make decisions regarding the need for or operation of the
project or to evaluate the project's performance. Beach nourishment projects are
continually responding to storms and seasonal changes in the physical and bio-
logical environments. Thus, their dimensions and the level of protection they
provide usually decrease with time. The level of protection at any given time
may also vary along the beach in a given project.
These data are needed to address the management questions listed in Box
6-1. Data acquisition programs must be designed with a clear definition of what
data are needed and how the data will eventually be used. The objectives must be
clearly defined at the outset, and the monitoring program must be designed to
meet those objectives. Too often, data are collected without consideration for
their analysis or how they will be used to make decisions. As a result, data
collected at considerable expense may never be fully analyzed or, if analyzed,
will not provide the answers needed (NRC, 19901. Obviously, appropriate mea
127
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BEACH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
surements must be made at a suitable frequency to permit decision makers to use
the information in renourishment activities.
Types of Monitoring
The physical processes monitored are usually those that move sand within
and away from the project area the fate of the sand and those that cause
elevated water levels. Often, many physical monitoring programs address only
the beach's response to sand-moving forces and do not include important forces
such as waves and currents.
Environmental monitoring is undertaken to document a project's effects on
the biota of the nourishment project. It involves collecting data on the impacts
that projects have on the flora and fauna in a project area and in adjacent areas.
Biological data are obtained to determine whether any short- or long-term changes
have occurred to the biota. Data need to be obtained on the beach where sand is
placed and in any offshore borrow areas. Preconstruction data on species diver-
sity, species composition, and numbers are compared with data taken during the
life of the nourishment project. For example, the monitoring of turtle nesting
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MONITORING
129
areas during the nesting season may be conducted to ensure protection of nesting
sites. These efforts must be carefully designed to eliminate seasonal effects that
may bias conclusions.
Economic monitoring is undertaken to evaluate the economic impacts of a
project and to determine whether predicted economic benefits were actually real-
ized, whether other unanticipated benefits resulted, whether projected construc-
tion costs were correct, and whether hidden costs were incurred. It involves
determining whether a project's economic justification was valid.
Purposes of Monitoring
Monitoring is undertaken for various purposes. Operational monitoring may
simply involve periodic inspections to determine the need for remedial action.
Such remedial actions might include renourishment, structure repairs, and other
maintenance. Operational monitoring includes both pre- and poststorm monitor
ing and the assessment of project performance. Performance monitoring is un-
dertaken to develop information and procedures for design verification and to
document lessons learned that may be applied in the design of future projects.
Phases of Monitoring
Monitoring phases coincide with project phases: preconstruction monitor-
ing, construction monitoring, and postconstruction monitoring.
Preconstruction monitoring involves collection of data on the physical and
biological environments that describe regional and site-specific processes. It in-
cludes collecting data helpful for design as well as baseline biological data.
Physical data are needed on waves, currents, water levels, beach composition and
profiles, and meteorological conditions. Baseline biological data include infor-
mation on habitat type and physical conditions, species composition and abun-
dance, and distribution patterns.
Preconstruction economic data are also important and may be collected as
part of the cost-benefit analysis for the project. Specifically, surveys of beach
users (including information that would support both travel cost and contingent
valuation analyses) are important. In addition, preconstruction assessments of the
market value of commercial and residential real estate in the area would contrib-
ute to a hedonic analysis of the effects of beach nourishment on property values.
Construction monitoring involves collecting data on how much sand was
actually placed and where, on short-term effects construction may have caused,
and on the materials that were actually used (e.g., the size of the sand placed on
the beach). Monitoring may include the effects of construction-induced turbidity
on the biota as well as recreational values lost during construction if construction
takes place during the recreational season.
Postconstruction monitoring involves systematic collection of data after con
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BEACH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
struction is complete to study the project's performance. Is it functioning as
intended? What, if any, are its adverse effects? What are its short- and long-term
biological impacts? What economic benefits did it actually provide? What mon-
etary costs were actually incurred, and what additional costs were imposed on the
area when it was time to reflourish?
Scale and Duration of Monitoring Programs
The scale of monitoring is generally related to the scale of the project itself.
Smaller projects may require only simple inexpensive measurements that provide
the information needed to make operational decisions. However, for small projects
with a potential for significant impacts, more extensive monitoring, commensu-
rate with the project's potential for physical and biological enhancements, dam-
age and economic loss, may be needed. For larger-scale projects, a more compre
. .
hensive monitoring program is warranted.
Monitoring needs to be undertaken in order to apply the findings to the
design of subsequent nourishment efforts. For example, if a borrow site experi-
ences long-term adverse impacts, a different borrow site or configuration must be
selected. If beach fauna show only limited impacts during nourishment, monitor-
ing of these impacts may not be necessary in subsequent renourishments or for
similar nourishment projects. The analysis of data from an effective monitoring
program would provide feedback to the design process. Monitoring the post-
construction economic impact of beach nourishment projects has not been wide-
spread. There have been few follow-up analyses of projects to determine whether
projected benefits were actually realized, whether secondary benefits occurred,
or if unanticipated costs could be attributed to the project (Stronge, 1992a, 1994J.
Monitoring programs need to be evaluated periodically and adjusted to meet
the needs of a project. As experience is gained with a project, some measure-
ments may be phased out or the frequency with which they are taken reduced. For
example, the infilling of a borrow area may show significant changes only fol-
lowing major storms; consequently, surveys need to be conducted only after such
storms. Similarly, after a period of years, seasonal variations in a beach's profiles
may be known, so frequent beach surveys become unnecessary.
PHYSICAL MONITORING
Monitoring the physical processes associated with a beach nourishment
project needs to be done within the framework of a sediment budget for the
project area and, when relevant, adjacent areas. A sediment budget requires that
all sand sources and sinks be identified and quantified for a defined sediment
budget area. The gains and losses are balanced against the changes in sand vol-
ume in the area. Sand sources include rivers, local bluff erosion, and alongshore
transport from adjacent areas. Sinks include ebb- and flood-tide shoals, wind
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131
transport of sand to back bay areas, losses to submarine canyons, and sand carried
out of the area by alongshore transport.
Monitoring data collected to quantify the physical processes that comprise
sources, sinks, and sand volume changes in a project area can include:
the previous history of the coastal site,
beach profiles,
· waves,
· currents,
· water levels,
· structures,
· sediment characteristics, and
photographic documentation.
.
Previous History of Site
The history of a coastal site can provide important information on how a
beach nourishment project may perform. Historical data may include anecdotal
information in addition to well-documented information on the physical environ-
ment and on the performance of earlier coastal projects. Information may in-
clude:
· historical erosion rates from aerial photographs or shoreline-change maps;
relative changes/trends in sea level;
astronomical tides;
local anthropogenic impacts, such as past nourishments;
documented information on historical storms and wave climate; and
assessment of the geological setting (i.e., the type of underlying geology
that may influence coastal processes and the sediment budget).
Beach Profiles
Changes in the volume of sand in a beach nourishment project along with the
width of the subaerial beach can be documented by periodic beach profile sur-
veys. Factors to be considered in establishing a beach profile survey program
include:
· profile line spacing,
· profile length (from dune line to depth of closure),
· survey frequency, and
· surveying procedures.
Knowledge of the profile line spacing and length permits the accurate defini
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BEACH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
lion of sand volumes in a project area and in adjacent areas that might receive
sand from the project. To accomplish this, profile lines must extend seaward to
the profile closure depth. Survey frequency varies over the life of a project.
Initially, surveys need to be conducted often enough to quantify seasonal changes.
For example, quarterly surveys may be needed because of profile adjustments
following construction, but subsequent project performance may permit less fre-
quent surveys. Because substantial changes can occur as a result of major storms,
it is prudent to conduct pre- and poststorm surveys in order to quantify the effects
of individual storms. Various surveying procedures can be used. Onshore surveys
can be conducted with standard level-rod surveying procedures. Offshore surveys
extending to wading or swimming depths can also use standard level-rod proce-
dures. However, surveys in deep water (soundings) require special equipment
and procedures such as echo sounders or survey sleds. When two different survey
procedures are employed onshore and offshore (often on different days), the two
surveys must be overlapped and spliced in the surf zone a region where eleva-
tion changes are significant and rapid. A survey sled avoids this problem because
it allows a single survey procedure to be used across the profile from deep water
to shore (Grosskopf and Kraus, 1994~.
Waves
Waves produce the most important forces that move sand in the coastal zone.
Alongshore sand transport is caused by the suspension of sand by breaking waves
and its movement by wave-induced alongshore currents. Waves also produce an
increase in water level, termed setup. Wave and water-level data provide a quan-
titative measure of storms affecting a project site and can be used to assess project
performance in response to differences in storm wave height, period, direction,
and duration and storm surge. Historical wave information, including wave height,
period, and direction, are available for U.S. shorelines in the form of wave
hindcasts developed for a 20-year period by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USAGE). These are valuable for the design of beach nourishment projects but
are generally not useful for evaluating the performance of a specific project. For
this latter purpose, wave measurements are necessary. There are numerous types
of wave gauges that can provide wave height and period data. They include
surface-piercing gauges, pressure gauges, accelerometer buoys, and inverted echo
sounders. Measurements of wave direction, necessary to determine alongshore
sediment transport rates, require directional buoys in deep water, multiple gauge
arrays, or pressure-gauge slope arrays in shallow water. Visual observations of
nearshore wave conditions can also provide data, but they are generally inaccu-
rate and are not collected during severe storm periods when observers cannot
visit the beach. Waves also provide the loading on any structures that might be
associated with beach nourishment projects.
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MONITORING
Currents
133
Currents are typically not measured directly as part of beach nourishment
project monitoring; alongshore currents are usually calculated from measured or
hindcast wave conditions. Some wave gauges rely on current measurements to
determine wave duration. However, data on currents associated with tidal inlets
may be important in understanding the performance of some beach nourishment
projects. Speed and direction can be measured by deploying current meters or by
tracking floating drogues or dye. Current meters can provide data recorded at
selected points over a long period several tidal cycles or longer; drogues and
dye provide data for very short time intervals and reaches. Storm-driven currents
are also difficult to measure unless incorporated into the regular gauging pro-
gram.
Water Levels
Elevated water levels during storms cause flooding and allow waves to act
higher up on the beach profile, where they cause erosion and damage to upland
development. Water levels are routinely measured by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Survey at tide gauges located
along U.S. coastlines (NOAA, 19931. These gauges record water levels that
include the astronomical tides, and when the predicted astronomical tide is sub-
tracted from the gauge record, they yield data on the meteorologically caused
water levels (storm surges). In most cases, these data will be available at nearby
gauges for beach nourishment projects in the United States; however, there may
be special cases where data are needed nearer the project. In these cases, a local
tide gauge could be installed.
Structures
If coastal structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, groins, nearshore breakwa-
ters, and jetties are present, monitoring of their effects on waves and currents,
their permeability to sand, and, ultimately, their effect on the stability of the
beach nourishment project is needed.
Sediment Characteristics
Sediment characteristics of interest include mineralogy, specific gravity,
mean grain size, grain-size distribution, grain shape, and settling velocity (Smith,
1992~. Most important are the mean grain size, size distribution, and settling
velocity. Sediment data are needed for the native beach sand, the intended borrow
sand, and the sand actually placed on the beach. Spatial variations in sediment
characteristics may also play a role with changes in mean grain size across the
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BEACHNOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
profile and along the beach. Ultimately, settling velocity determines the impor-
tant hydraulic characteristics of the sediment and the nearshore beach slope and
equilibrium profile shape.
Photographic Documentation
Photography provides a relatively inexpensive method of obtaining data on
the performance of beach nourishment projects. Controlled vertical aerial photo-
graphs can document upland conditions, shoreline location, and beach topogra-
phy at a specific point in time. They can also be used to document storm effects.
Strategically positioned ground-level photographs taken from the same location
over time can provide a ready indication of the success or failure of a project. In
addition, videotape can supplement still photography in documenting beach con-
ditions. Videos taken from a small airplane or helicopter can provide an inexpen-
sive way to document beach conditions over large reaches of shoreline before and
after storms.
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
There are several major objectives that need to be incorporated into any
biological impact assessment of a beach nourishment project. They are to:
· determine the existing biological resources that may be altered by the
project and provide recommendations that will avoid long-term negative
consequences to those resources,
characterize the preconstruction temporal and spatial variability in the
biological resources present within and near the project area, and
evaluate the postnourishment recovery of biological resources that may
be impacted by the project.
Many previous monitoring studies of beach nourishment projects have failed
to adequately incorporate one or more of these objectives. Although the specific
design of a monitoring program may vary considerably, depending on the size
and location of the project, some general guidelines can be stated.
Before any nourishment project is conducted, it is essential to obtain ad-
equate baseline data on carefully selected, significant flora and fauna in an area
and to document natural spatial and seasonal variabilities in their numbers, spe-
cies composition, and diversity. These data can then be compared with post-
nourishment monitoring to evaluate the extent and duration of changes that oc-
cur, both on the beach and in the borrow area. A complete monitoring program
would provide adequate data to ensure that biological impacts are only short term
relative to the interval between renourishment projects. If long-term impacts are
experienced, other approaches to the project must be considered.
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135
The scope of the preliminary biological surveys required within and adjacent
to a project depends largely on the quantity and quality of historical data avail-
able for the area, but, as a minimum, a comprehensive assessment would include
the following:
.
surveys to locate and quantify ecologically sensitive habitats, such as
nearshore reefs, hard-bottom habitat, and nesting habitats that should not
be disturbed by construction activities, including information on the sea-
sonal use of the project area by threatened or endangered species or im-
portant fishery resources, and
· surveys of other biota, such as benthic infauna, that will be affected by
disturbances from dredging and nourishment activities within and adja-
cent to the project area.
Methods for surveying sensitive-bottom habitats vary, depending on water clarity
and the size of the project. In areas where waters are clear and shallow, aerial
surveys supported by diver or underwater television observations may be suffi-
cient to map reef habitats. When water clarity or depths preclude visual mapping
methods, side-scan sonar, underwater television or photography, and subbottom
profiling systems may be used. A combination of two or more of these systems is
often preferable because each has its limitations in detecting or mapping bottom
types, particularly in areas where there is no bottom relief. The size of the survey
area and the spacing of transects in the area will depend on the equipment used,
but all bottom habitats in the area potentially affected by the project need to be
mapped fully.
Data on fishery resources in the project area or on use of the area by threat-
ened or endangered species are often available through monitoring programs
conducted by state and federal natural resource agencies. However, some pre-
liminary reconnaissance may be necessary when such data are not available.
Quantitative sampling of other biological resources, such as the benthic
macrofaunal communities, is also usually warranted because these assemblages
are the principal macrofaunal component inhabiting beach sands and borrow
areas, and they form an important component of the nearshore food web. Prelimi-
nary sampling of these assemblages needs to be conducted, when feasible, to
select the appropriate sample size and sampling design to be used in pre- and
postnourishment monitoring studies. It is not necessary to include biota that
cannot be adequately quantified or that are not good indicators of the local envi-
ronmental quality in any subsequent monitoring program. Similarly, emphasis is
appropriately placed on monitoring only those resources and habitats of greatest
concern because there is rarely enough funding to adequately monitor all aspects
of the affected ecosystem. For example, if the areal extent of the intertidal zone is
limited owing to low tidal amplitude, monitoring of intertidal communities may
represent a lower priority compared to monitoring the borrow area, where longer
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BEACH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
term effects have been noted, or the nearshore zone in areas where there are
sensitive habitats that may be disturbed.
The extent, duration, and frequency of pre- and postconstruction monitoring
will largely depend on the size of the project, the habitats to be affected, and the
projected frequency of renourishment. Determining the sampling precision for
the biological monitoring effort merits specific consideration. Elliot (1979), Green
(1979), and Nelson (1991, 1993) provide more comprehensive information on
recommended sampling designs, sample size, and sampling frequency and on
statistical constraints that merit consideration in developing a biological monitor-
ing program. Sampling precision is especially important because many previous
studies involved the collection of only a few replicate samples per site. The low
number of replicates used was probably not sufficient to detect statistically even
major changes in the biological parameters being monitored. In addition, many
studies have focused more on characterizing community structure such as faunal
abundance, biomass, and measures of species diversity than on identifying and
assessing trends and changes in the faunal communities with respect to trophic
structure and function.
There is a large variability in the physical characteristics and biological
resources of beach and nearshore habitats along the coastline of the United States.
The conditions that exist at a beach nourishment site need to be considered in
forming the specific sampling approaches that are incorporated into a biological
monitoring program. Based on the limited data available from previous monitor-
ing efforts, several key questions need to be addressed in developing the biologi-
cal study design:
· What is the duration of disturbance to the biological resources of concern,
and is it compatible with the anticipated frequency of redisturbance re-
sulting from subsequent renourishment operations?
· Are biological resources adjacent to the project area affected by construc-
tion activities or subsequent movement of sediments from the project
area?
· Do turbidity levels associated with nourishment operations exceed levels
known to be harmful to the indigenous biota of concern, or, if that is not
known, do the levels exceed those naturally observed over various sea-
sons at the site of concern?
Monitoring programs that are designed to address these questions adequately and
that are relevant to the area where a project is planned will greatly improve our
understanding of the biological consequences of beach nourishment activities.
ECONOMIC MONITORING
A well-designed economic monitoring program would attempt to answer the
following questions:
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MONITORING
137
How large are the realized recreational benefits, and do they approximate
those predicted for the project?
What are the effects of the project on property values, and to what extent
are these effects linked with storm damage reduction, enhanced aesthet-
ics, and recreational amenities?
· What were the construction and other related costs, and were they well
approximated by the cost estimates?
Are there other significant but perhaps unanticipated costs and/or benefits
accruing from the project?
From the locality's standpoint, did the project stimulate growth, and, if so,
what desirable or undesirable effects did the growth have on the commu-
nity?
Did the project encourage construction that places more property at risk
from storm destruction?
What was the actual distribution of the costs and benefits of the project-
that is, who benefited and who paid?
Although the USACE is charged with conducting preconstruction cost-
benefit analyses, there have been few follow-up analyses of projects to determine
whether projected benefits were actually realized, whether secondary benefits
occurred, or whether unanticipated costs could be attributed to the project
(Haveman, 1979; Stronge, 1992b, 1994~. Without such follow-up studies, it is
difficult to determine whether USACE methodologies for assessing recreational
and storm damage reduction benefits are sufficiently accurate for beach nourish-
ment analysis, and it is impossible to determine whether its cost-benefit analyses
incorporate all significant categories of costs and benefits that usually accrue
from these projects. Although full-scale follow-up analyses may not be warranted
for all projects, postconstruction analysis of a sampling of projects is necessary to
answer these questions.
As discussed in Chapter 2, none of these categories of costs and benefits is
easy to estimate. Analysis of recreational benefits is in some ways the easiest
because this methodology is the most well developed. The purpose of the recre-
ational monitoring component would be to quantify the actual recreational ben-
efits accruing specifically to the beach nourishment activity and whether the
benefits were well approximated by the preconstruction analysis. This analysis
requires valuing the change in use directly associated with the change in the
quality/size of the beach brought about by the nourishment.
Ideally, both before and after the nourishment activity, surveys based on
random samples of the area's population need to be taken in conjunction with
onsite surveys of beach users. The surveys would provide both information on
participation rates for beach use that are unavailable from onsite surveys and a
means of extrapolating survey sample to total beach use. However, onsite surveys
are still useful because they provide a means of oversampling users, thus ensuring
adequate coverage of this group. Both types of surveys would need to collect
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BEACH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION
information on the total number of beach trips to different beaches in the area on
a seasonal basis as well as the location of household residence, travel costs, and
household socioeconomic variables.
Given access to respondents, contingent valuation questions might also be
included in the survey. Such questions are a useful way to elicit information on
how individuals value quality aspects of the beach and the surrounding area that
may have changed owing to the nourishment activity. As explained in Appendix
E, contingent valuation questions ask people how much they would be willing to
pay (in increased entrance fees, parking fees, or some other payment vehicle) for
a change in quality characteristics of the beach. A pertinent experiment would be
to ask such a question before construction, describing the expected outcome of
the nourishment activity, and then to ask a similar postconstruction question
when individuals can witness the results of the nourishment project directly.
It is, of course, difficult even after construction to assess the accuracy of
estimated storm damage reduction benefits. The reason is that storm events are
random, and estimates must be based on expectations. However, it is possible to
attempt to assess the effects of a nourishment project on property values by
collecting property value data before and after the project and completing a
hedonic analysis. A hedonic analysis attempts to explain property values as spe-
cific functions of characteristics of the property (see Appendix E for further
discussion of hedonic analysis). Data on important property characteristics are
required, including distance to, view of, and accessibility of the beach. The intent
would be to see how changes in the quality of the beach affect property values,
controlling for all other features of the properties.
There are several difficulties with hedonic analyses of this sort, however, not
the least of which is timing; the added value of a beach nourishment project will
begin being capitalized into property values as soon as a potential project is
announced. Nonetheless, it would be useful to design a hedonic study that at-
tempts to reveal the marginal value associated with beach nourishment, although
it may require incorporating a lagged response in the model. It would also be
useful if the hedonic analysis could be designed to separate the storm damage
reduction benefits from the aesthetic and recreational benefits of the nourish-
ment; however, the high correlation between these two characteristics may pre
clude doing so.
Beach nourishment projects can potentially have additional effects on an
area although few, if any, studies have attempted to even list them. Projects may
stimulate new construction and/or commercial development, for example. Such
activity may have positive or negative net benefits for the community depending
on the nature and size of the development and the type of community. A post-
construction survey of these effects would be useful, including an assessment of
their fiscal impacts (increases in the tax base and employment versus increased
costs of infrastructure and services). If a nourishment project stimulates construc-
tion that increases the risk to property of storm damage, then this increase needs
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MONITORING
139
to be accounted for. Further, it would be especially useful to survey the popula-
tion to determine the community effects of the beach nourishment project.
Because there is increasing debate over the share of beach nourishment costs
incurred by federal and local partners, an analysis of the recipients of the costs
and benefits would be useful. First, of course, the construction and related costs
of the project need to be tallied, compared to original cost estimates, and attnb-
uted to the sponsoring parties. They would then be compared with the incidence
of the benefits. If properly done, such an analysis will provide accurate informa-
tion as to who benefits from the project. One caveat is necessary here. If the
project was made necessary by actions elsewhere (e.g., USACE dredging), these
negative externalities must be taken into account. For example, some of the
nourishment operations may have been dredged-matenal disposal operations in
which sand was deposited on the beach only because doing so was the cheapest
disposal option. Alternatively, the need for a particular project may be due to
interruption of the natural sand flow by a navigational project. Information on the
distribution of costs and benefits from beach nourishment projects of different
types would help inform the cost-shar~ng policy makers in the future.
REFERENCES
Elliot, J. M. 1979. Some Methods for the Statistical Analysis of Samples of Benthic Invertebrates.
Freshwater Biological Association, Scientific Publication No. 25. Kendal, U.K.: Titus Wilson
& Son, Ltd.
Green, R. H. 1979. Sampling Design and Statistical Methods for Environmental Biologists. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Grosskopf, W. G., and N. C. Kraus. 1994. Guidelines for surveying beach nourishment projects.
Shore and Beach 62(2):9-16.
Haveman, R. H. 1979. The Economic Performance of Public Investments. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Nelson, W. G. 1991. Methods of biological monitoring of beach restoration projects: problems and
solutions in the real world. Pp. 263-276 in Preserving and Enhancing Our Beach Environment:
Proceedings of the 1991 National Conference on Beach Preservation Technology. Tallahassee:
Florida Shore and Beach Preservation Association.
Nelson, W. G. 1993. Beach restoration in the southeastern US: environmental effects and biological
monitoring. Ocean and Coastal Management 19:157-182.
NOAA. 1993. Tide Tables for the East Coast of North and South America. Washington, D.C.:
National Ocean Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
NRC. 1990. Managing Troubled Waters. Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical
Systems. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Smith, A. W. S. 1992. Description of beach sands. Shore and Beach 60(3):23-30.
Stronge, W. B. 1992a. Impact of Captiva's Beaches on Property Values and Taxes. Paper prepared
for the Captiva Erosion Prevention District by Regional Research Associates, Inc., Boca Raton,
Fla., December.
Stronge, W. B. 1992b. The economic impact of the Marco Island beach restoration: a preliminary
analysis. In: New Directions in Beach Management, Proceedings of the 5th Annual National
Conference on Beach Preservation Technology. Tallahassee: Florida Shore and Beach Preser-
vation Association.
Stronge, W. B. 1994. Beaches, tourism and economic development. Shore and Beach 62(2):6-8.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
nourishment project
