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OCR for page 161
Lessons from the Evolution of Electronics
Manufacturing Technologies
SIDNEY F. HEATH III
Technology Planning Director, AT&T
The global electronics market, which grew from $220 billion in 1980 to $654
billion in 1990, will reach an estimated $1.405 trillion in 2000.i Because of this
tremendous growth in demand, electronics manufacturing is one of the main
sources of advances in technology and innovation. Worldwide, electronics manu-
facturing productivity has been a primary factor in sustaining and increasing
national standards of living and economic growth by adding value to raw materi-
als. Indeed, electronic manufacturing's economic pump, when it can generate
growth in productivity, delivers a far larger percentage of added value to the
economy than that of any other single sector. These benefits also are available to
developing countries that are able to successfully nurture an electronics manufac-
turing sector. But to do so, these countries need to understand the forces driving
the rapid technological changes occurring in this sector and the basics of the
manufacturing technology shifts.
FORCES AFFECTING ELECTRONICS
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
Three main forces are driving innovation in electronics manufacturing tech-
nology: information technology, globalization, and intensified competition.
The major trends in information technologies-electronics photonics, speech
process, video, computing, telecommunications, software, and terminals are
described in "Information Technology for Development" by John S. Mayo. Pow-
erful technological trends in silicon, photonics, and software development hav
produced the technologies that are supporting the emerging multimedia commu
161
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162
Marshaling Technology for Development
nication revolution and the evolution of a national information superhighway.
For example, the silicon components at the core of all electronics devices have
been doubling in speed every two years; compression algorithms have allowed
technologists to encode the same information in one-thirtieth the space every five
years; lasers are doubling in speed every three to four years; data storage costs are
being cut in half every other year; and software has generated a computer literacy
requirement that affects most occupations. Overall, these trends will determine
what can be manufactured and how manufacturing will operate. Most electronic
assembly operations will use similar components, interconnection schemes, pack-
aging, and power supplies.
The need for reliable miniaturization processes in electronics manufacturing
has driven such operations into suprahuman activities that require automation
support to deliver a product that meets global quality and reliability standards.
This in turn has meant a reduced role for unskilled labor and a greater dependence
on a highly skilled work force.
Effective manufacturing operations also require the seamless integration of
the manufacturing technologies into a full-stream, high-velocity process. Individual
technology steps and their facilities are readily available in the market. Thus full-
stream integration and effective operation require either significant investments
in technology transfer or a long, expensive internal development interval. Fortu-
nately, as the cost of processing MIPS (million instructions per second) has
dropped, the cost of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) has dropped as
well and provided for effective process control and concurrent engineering.
Globalization, the second force affecting innovations in manufacturing tech-
nology, has changed the context for manufacturing decisions in electronic assem-
bly. Manufacturing operations can no longer exist effectively as stand-alone
entities because they must depend heavily on their global supply base for compo-
nents, manufacturing infrastructure, and the development of manufacturing pro-
cesses. In the developing countries, policies and regulations on trade policies,
soft financing, economic offset, and duties and taxes on the flow of these manu-
facturing elements can significantly affect the climate for manufacturing. Fur-
thermore, the competitive complexion of a manufacturing entity is becoming
increasingly dependent on the successful utilization and leverage of its global
production network. Without the support of the developing countries themselves,
the manufacturing operations will not be globally competitive.
Finally, the globalization of manufacturing has intensified the competitive-
ness to be first to market, to be customer-responsive, and to have the highest
productivity rates. Being first to market generally means higher profit margins
and larger market shares. But such a focus on time-based processes requires the
adoption of quality principles and total quality management. Thus to be globally
competitive, manufacturing companies must master the basics of continuous
learning and improving through a quality orientation. They then can take the next
step, which is to drive time from their processes.
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SIDNEY F. HEATH III
163
Given the pace of technological change and the increasing competitiveness
of the global marketplace, rates of productivity improvement are a critical deter-
minant of financial success. Over the long term, successful manufacturing com-
panies can realize productivity rates twice as high as those of their competitors or
even higher.2 Indeed, operations that focus on productivity, create an innovative
environment, and drive for results can actually outperform average operations
two to one. This capability then becomes a long-term differentiator that is diffi-
cult to duplicate because the requisite skills have been deeply imbedded in the
work force. Furthermore, because the advantages of proprietary technologies
have been disappearing, and the returns on sales, revenue growth, and product
life cycles have been declining at double-digit rates,3 successful global manufac-
turing operations must leverage their learning and integration across their entire
production network where capabilities and learning are done globally. This in
turn implies that each location will depend heavily on the skills and resources at
other locations. Developing countries that can establish a climate conducive to
building systematic, comprehensive approaches to continuous innovation and
productivity will find that manufacturing sectors are better able to thrive.
TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
Any understanding of the shifts in electronics manufacturing requires an in-
depth look at the trends affecting the five major manufacturing processes: manu-
facturing assembly, designer interfaces, supplier interfaces, order realization, and
distribution. This paper, however, will focus only on the first three processes, as
well as the people who carry them out (Figure 1~.
People
The organizational structure of manufacturing and people's roles and re-
sponsibilities in that structure are evolving from an environment geared toward
managing people to one directed at coaching people and managing processes.
Leading-edge manufacturers have been eliminating layers of management and
developing effective communication capabilities for flatter organizations. Man-
agement is no longer in the loop for all decisions; in its coaching role it now
primarily sets direction, establishes commitment, and marshals resources.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, employees at all levels were given relatively
narrow job descriptions for specific, well-defined tasks because it was assumed
that processes would remain stable. But in the 1980s, the realization dawned that
processes evolve and therefore so should tasks. This notion called for pushing
decision making down to the lowest possible level where the employees could
add value by improving the process. Indeed, differential advantages could be
obtained through empowered production associates who could identify and solve
problems.
OCR for page 164
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SIDNEY F. HEATH III
165
This is one of the most misunderstood issues when evaluating the transfer of
manufacturing technology. Facilities and buildings can be established in a rela-
tively short period of time, but the development of the human capital is fairly
invisible, expensive, difficult to assess, and the most time-consuming yet it is
by far the most important aspect of technology transfer. Government policies that
do not encourage a long-term bond between employer and employee further
complicate this process. For example, if retirement programs are maintained by
the government, employees are more apt to transfer to new employers after they
have been trained by their present one.
Where self-directed teams are implemented, improvements in all areas of
manufacturing such as quality, productivity, cycle time, worker safety, and
customer satisfaction are realized. In addition, layers of bureaucracy and many
manufacturing costs can be eliminated. Yet, perhaps more important, workers are
better able to adapt to the fast pace of technology change, thereby producing a
more agile organization seeking to continually improve its ability to thrive in a
competitive environment of continuous and unanticipated change while nimbly
responding to rapidly changing, customer-driven markets. This process of lever-
aging intellectual capital is key to the new manufacturing paradigms because this
is where the wealth of the manufacturing competencies resides, not in the manu-
facturing facilities. When this process is carried out properly, performance may
improve by an order of magnitude over that of companies not at the leading
edge.4 It must be remembered, however, that the effective utilization of high-
performance teams will erode the advantages of low-cost labor unless the latter
are similarly trained and empowered.
When high-performance teams are in place, manufacturing management will
have the time and energy to tackle the kinds of important strategic and financial
issues facing any operation seeking to continually improve its operations. But
what kind of management can provide the leadership and direction required?
They are manufacturing professionals who are well versed in finance and who
have social skills in addition to their knowledge of manufacturing. Fledgling
manufacturing operations in developing countries may rely on costly expatriates
to provide these qualities, but over the long run this is no substitute for the
development and training of national manufacturing managers in order to be
competitive and to harmonize the manufacturing operation to local environments.
Such development and training will require the longest lead time of all the devel-
opmental processes.
Manufacturing Assembly
In the early 1920s, manufacturing quality consisted primarily of product
inspection for conformance. Statistical process control (SPC) was introduced in
the 1940s to separate out assignable causes from natural variation and to monitor
processes. But in the 40 years that followed, the management approach to SPC
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Marshaling Technology for Development
was misplaced, with the exception of Japan. In the mid-1980s, the responsibility
for product quality was shifted from a staff organization of a few to everyone, the
basis of total quality management (TQM). Juran's philosophy that most quality
problems are related to the management systems and Deming's 14 points of
quality management revitalized quality through the basics; such simple problem-
solving tools as Pareto charts, histograms, and fishbone charts produced amazing
results. Quality became a strategic issue so much so that many companies
documented their processes and became ISO 9000 registered in the late 1980s.
Today, this emphasis on quality is extending into programs that provide
customer feedback on the competitors' performances. In fact, customer surveys
have become a key source of customer data for directing quality improvements.
Customer value-added (CVA) analysis (a way of looking at oneself through the
eyes of one's customers) further refines customer feedback and serves as a basis
for proactive improvement programs. One important aspect of the customer focus
is the notion of competing through time and understanding the entire customer
relationship.
In the early 1990s, the availability of personal computers allowed SPC calcu-
lations to be figured in real time, cost-effectively. Many factories have continu-
ous automated data collection and process control chart monitoring, allowing the
ongoing analysis of feedback data. As trends are discovered and analyzed, pro-
cesses are optimized. Two major developments in this area are, first, a move
toward designing a process right the first time and including sufficient robust
parameters so that data collection and charting are not necessary, and, second, the
implementation of new hearty data collection systems that will accommodate
product flexibility and early ramp-up of new designs.
During the last five years, the science of environmental stress testing has
matured, improving the reliability of the product as seen by the customer. This
was carried out first in the manufacturing process and has now moved upstream
into the concurrent design process during the early prototype stage. In the current
environmental stress testing, new designs are functionally tested to establish
upper and lower temperature bounds with voltage variations. Emerging technolo-
gies include clock variations, faster temperature fluctuations, shock, mechanical
vibrations, electrostatic discharge (ESD), and artificial lightning.
The next phase of process control is off-line real-time video monitoring of
manufacturing processes to strengthen the understanding of the underlying manu-
facturing science. The thrust is beyond six sigma expectations (quality levels) for
manufacturing operations to six sigma goals for entire manufacturing lines. Lead-
ing-edge manufacturing operations will have performance levels that qualify for
recognition by government and international quality awards for example, the
Deming Prize, European Quality Award, and Baldrige Award. Their manufac-
turing operations will perform at these levels regardless of their country of
Operation.
Customer requirements and competitive pressures will demand a manufac
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SIDNEY F. HEATH III
167
luring management discipline that concentrates on continuous improvement in
product and process quality. Without this passion, the manufacturing operations
will not be able to compete globally. Developing countries can foster this climate
by offering quality recognition awards that require the very highest levels of
quality excellence, encourage quality training, and sponsor quality registration
programs.
In packaging, electronics manufacturing technology is evolving quickly to
keep pace with the silicon density revolution. The trend toward finer pitch and
denser electronic assemblies has enabled moves toward densification to provide
more functionality in the same space and miniaturization to produce a product
that is smaller than similar products of the recent past.
During the early 1980s, electronic assembly focused primarily on leaded
devices that were placed in holes on printed wiring boards (PWBs) and then wave
soldered. In the mid-1980s, surface mount began replacing through-hole assem-
bly; the main advantage of surface mount: it enables double-sided assembly and
more interconnect and thus higher density. It also uses the stencil print, place, and
reflow process, which is more consistent and allows finer pitch than through-
hole. In the late 1980s, surface mount pitch was reduced from 0.100 inch to 0.050
inch and in the l990s to 0.025 inch and 0.020 inch. The trend continues to push
the limits further to 0.015 inch and 0.012 inch, but probably will not extend
beyond without additional technology. As the pitch becomes finer, the leads are
more susceptible to damage during handling and the coplanarity of PWBs affects
the soldering consistency. Because the trend to surface mount designs is well
under way, it is now becoming difficult to procure the older through-hole pack-
ages. This trend has contributed to a trend toward hiring fewer, but more highly
skilled, employees (Figure 21.
Another package technology, the ball grid array (BOA), does not have a
peripherally leaded interconnect; the input/output (I/O) are distributed over the
area of the package face in an array. The main advantages of this approach are
that the fragile leads are replaced with solder balls and the pitch for the same I/O
is greater, thus making device to PWB assembly easier. A major benefit is that
the existing surface mount assembly equipment is reusable.
The next industry step toward smaller packages, called direct chip attach
(DCA), is to eliminate the package altogether and attach the silicon chip directly
to the substrate. The method of attaching the chip directly with conductive adhe-
sive, electrically interconnected with wirebonding, is called chip-on-board. An
important approach, known as chip-scale packaging, puts an interlayer on the
chip for protection during handling and also provides compliance. When the chip
is placed on glass substrate (as in displays), the arrangement is called chip-on-
glass. When the chip is placed face down, directly on the substrate or glass, it is
called flip-chip. In the cases of direct chip attach, the packages are more suscep-
tible to damage from electrostatic discharge and require other than conventional
surface mount assembly equipment.
OCR for page 168
168
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Count
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Marshaling Technology fo' Development
1980 1 985
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TSOP Thin small outline package
Electrical interconnect points
Pin grid array
Dual in-line packages
Plastic leaded chip carrier
Quad flat pack
(Type 1)
Memory
MOP Multichip package
BGA Ball grid array
UTSOP Ultra-thin small outline package
PCMCIA Personal computer memory card
international association
TSSOP Thin shrink small outline package
MOM Multichip module
TAB Tape automated bonding
FIGURE 2 The evolution of packaging.
Traditionally, electronic products have been tested, first, for structural integ-
rity (presence of parts, orientation, continuity) and then for function. The struc-
tural test used a "bed of nails" and sophisticated test computers to test continuity
on many circuit paths through small probes ("nails"~. Functional testing checked
the overall PWB function through its I/O connectorts). As packaging technology
leaned toward finer pitch and more functionality in less space, space for the bed-
of-nails testing became limited. Probe pitch in the 1980s was typically 0.100
inch. It improved to 0.050 inch and in some cases to 0.025 inch, but most circuits
were much denser and probe points on circuits were using space on the PWBs
that components could use. Thus test coverage was dramatically limited.
The new methods are the boundary scan, to overcome probe density limita-
tions in the structural test, and the built-in self-test (BIST) for chip-level func-
tional testing of digital devices. Use of BIST requires that a portion of the silicon
chip be set aside for self-test the test probes are etched in silicon when the
device is made, and several LO are reserved for initiating and accessing the result
of the self-test. This technology is being implemented first in processors and
memory devices. The boundary scan method checks the interconnect between
devices. The combination of boundary scan and BIST may someday replace bed
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SIDNEY F. HEATH III
169
of-nails and functional testing for many products and enable high reliability of
even more complex electronic devices.
The basic interconnect material between components and the PWB is tin-
lead solder, used in various proportions to achieve different melting temperatures
for a variety of applications. In the 1980s and early 1990s, much progress was
made toward developing water-soluble fluxes and lead-free solders, and the fu-
ture will see less use of hazardous materials such as lead and some fluxes. leading
to "greener" manufacturing processes.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) has progressed to the point where
most manufacturing lines producing a diversity of electronic products use auto-
matic product identifiers and download programs for assembly sequencing and
process recipes. Operations without this capability have a much higher setup time
and cost and cannot compete as effectively. The integration of multiple software
systems allows the seamless electronic transfer of manufacturing information all
the way from schematic design to building the materials lists for the material
resource planning (MRP) systems. Capabilities now exist for global CIM so that
designers and manufacturing locations can be effectively linked independent of
their country of origin. Electronic data transfer systems can be expensive, how-
ever, if facilities have to be installed specifically for CIM data transfers. In these
cases, speed and response time requirements will typically determine the commu
. .
nlcatlon mode.
Generally, most of the individual facilities required for manufacturing steps
are available globally to all manufacturers. Support for such facilities, however,
may require the availability of trained technicians on the premises and experts on
call for emergency support. Technical information is readily available at trade
shows and training centers and through various associations such as the Society
of Manufacturing Engineers, Surface Mount Equipment Manufacturers Associa-
tion, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and NEPCON electronics
exhibitions. Significant improvements in processes become well known and avail-
able relatively quickly, yet the performance of a manufacturing operation is
driven primarily by the effective integration of many processes and operating
procedures, for which the integration capabilities or recipes generally are not
readily available and, in reality, are dependent on the competencies in the manu-
facturing operation. Access to these capabilities or recipes is best obtained through
technology transfer agreements such as joint ventures or licensing. Without an
effective technology transfer program, developing countries can easily choose
the wrong equipment (which may be right for other applications) or not integrate
the equipment correctly.
Design Interfaces
In a competitive environment that is global, intense, and dynamic, the devel-
opment of new products and processes is becoming the focal point of competi
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Marshaling Technology for Development
lion. Manufacturing companies that can get to market faster and more efficiently
with products that are well matched to the needs and expectations of the customer
create significant market leverage in both market share and margin.
In the 1960s, design and manufacturing had separate departments of special-
ists. Designers converted marketing's features requirements into a set of draw-
ings and other documentation that specified a product for manufacturing to build.
Design was further subdivided into process and product design. Working within
these organizational dividers ("walls"), marketing threw requests over the wall to
product design; in turn, process designers and product designers threw their
specifications over the wall to manufacturing. As a result, manufacturing built
products without a deep understanding of the customers' needs.
In the 1 970s, it was recognized that if designers had a better understanding of
how a product is built, they would design products that were easier and cheaper to
manufacture. Soon, then, design-for-assembly (DFA) analysis tools were devel-
oped and applied. These tools stressed the importance of minimizing part counts
by expanding the functionality of design elements and minimizing handling and
orientation changes. From the DFA push evolved a more general look at design-
for-manufacturability (DFM) and then design-for-X (DFX), where X has come to
mean any downstream process such as design-for-logistics, design-for-test, de-
sign-for-installation, or design-for-environment.
In the electronics industry, the increase in silicon density and consequently
the ability to provide more features and functionality in the same space also have
contributed to closer ties between manufacturing and design. Competition to
provide advanced consumer electronics products to the marketplace has led com-
panies to capitalize on the advantages of closer manufacturing and design organi-
zations and the breaking down of the former walls. Design has evolved from a
serial-design/build/test work mode to a model-and-simulate/test-build/verify con-
current engineering approach.
Trends in information technology have decreased the costs of design work-
station platforms by 10 percent a year and increased their computing power by 30
percent a year. The development of information systems has become more effi-
cient because of database independence foundations and object-oriented design
methodologies. Global movements of product design data, facilitated by im-
provements in local area and wide area networks, have enabled designs to be
simulated at the circuit pack and system level before any prototypes are built.
Although the capability to use simulation of firmware and diagnostic software
exists, cost-effective computing power is still a bottleneck for the aggressive
projects.
Many of the DFX rules are built into the CAD (computer-aided design)
tools. Now cross-functional teams address and overcome issues in the early stages
of a new product, allowing manufacturing to participate early in the product
development cycle and resulting in more manufacturable, quicker-to-market, cost-
effective products. Information technology has provided the capability to elec
OCR for page 171
SIDNEY F. HEATH III
171
tropically carry out concurrent design and reviews at different geographic loca-
tions. Because many electronic product life cycles are now measured in months
instead of years, the initial design must be correct the first time. There is no
longer time to cycle through iterations of design.
Since as much as 75-90 percent of manufacturing costs are determined in the
design stage, effective concurrent design in product and process is paramount to
bringing new products with superior performance to market. Often the design
architectures are determined by global technology trends (for example, micropro-
cessors or memories) that basically determine how costs are distributed between
materials and labor and load (overhead) costs. Even the options between different
manufacturing operations (such as providing for more or less labor) are becoming
more limited. The percentage of manufacturing costs assigned to material has
stayed relatively flat over the last 10 years for any particular product family, but
more products are like consumer products, with a lower percentage of labor and
load. In addition, the labor and load content has shifted from the workers directly
assembling the product to the support personnel, and this shift is particularly
acute in small factories.
For developing countries, these trends make the transition to manufacturing
more challenging and reduce the global advantage of having low-cost labor in an
unskilled work force. These challenges can be addressed by fostering a climate in
which local manufacturing can leverage off a global production network for the
initial development and shake-out of new products and processes. The leveraging
requires effective global communication networks, efficient import/export poli-
cies, unrestricted travel, joint ventures with greater than 50 percent ownership by
foreigners, and localization expectations consistent with realistic economic as-
sessments. The developing countries also can foster the development of a skilled
work force, well trained in the quality basics along with the basic sciences.
Sponsorships of trade shows, professional associations, and training centers also
will foster the right learning environment.
Supplier Interfaces
Because 75-90 percent of the value of typical electronic products is deter-
mined by the suppliers of the components, the relationship between component
suppliers and the assembly operations has changed significantly over the last 10-
15 years. Material resources planning (MRP) enabled organizations to plan and
execute production and material requirements effectively in complex environ-
ments. It thereby introduced discipline and structure to the relationship between
the manufacturing operation and the supplier. In the mid-1980s, just-in-time
(JIT) manufacturing focused attention on reductions in waste and lead times as
well as throughput improvements. In the push to minimize inventory, suppliers
were asked to ship in smaller and smaller lot sizes with higher frequency. This
shift to just-in-time inventory drove suppliers and producers closer together.
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Marshaling Technology for Development
Thus relationships with suppliers have evolved from arm's-length customer-sup-
plier ones to long-term, almost coproducer ones. Multiple suppliers no longer
compete on price for the same part; now the best suppliers are sought out and
retained as a primary source that will provide the lowest world-class total cost of
ownership. Price continues to be important, but other criteria (delivery, quality,
. ~ . . .
proximity) are given appropriate consideration.
In this closer relationship, which allows producer and supplier to work to-
gether, producers help to improve supplier quality and suppliers participate in
plans for new designs. As a result, component defect levels have dropped drasti-
cally. Multiple-level, two-way contacts allow broad sharing of process, quality,
and schedule information. To facilitate the process improvements, many manu-
facturers now have formal quality review procedures in place. To facilitate shar-
ing of information, corporations with larger stakes in each other's mutual success
have linked key material databases and synchronized schedules.
Producers and suppliers are typically located in geographical clusters to
facilitate JIT. As the distances between suppliers and assembly decrease, so does
the inventory as a percentage of sales. Leading-edge procurement (LEP) arrange-
ments, techniques, or processes are established to streamline transactions, elimi-
nate purchase orders or manual intervention, and add valued services. As a result
of such steps, suppliers are able to provide their clients with the benefits of
inventory reduction, supply assurance, and on-site support through such pro-
cesses as consignment of materials, dock-to-stock shipments, breadman and de-
mand pull. LEP transactional provisioning converts the previous manual transac-
tions into electronic data interchange using such systems as Conversant (voice
messages) or EDI/EFT/EDS (electronic data interchange/electronic funds trans-
fer/electronic data systems). This trend of supplier and manufacturer working
together to eliminate wasted costs and time is likely to continue (Figure 3~.
Localization of suppliers for any manufacturing operation is a significant
concern when establishing operations in a developing country. BuLky, low-tech-
nology parts such as plastic and metalware are usually the first to be localized,
although even this effort is often underestimated because these components often
require unique properties and high quality. The value of these products will vary
by product family, but the low-technology parts are typically less than 10 percent
of the material cost of the final electronic product. The next level of localization
requires significantly more technology transfer for such technologies as printed
wiring boards and passive components. The final localization steps into the high-
technology areas of integrated circuits and displays will probably be taken only if
there are significant market opportunities to justify the large capital investments.
Given these considerations, it is important that developing countries have an
effective infrastructure and transportation system that can handle the importation
of the components for assembly during these countries' initial thrust into a manu-
facturing economy.
With intense competition driving suppliers toward thinner margins (less
OCR for page 173
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Marshaling Technology for Development
margin or profitability), the inventory costs of finished goods in-transit also
become a more significant factor in establishing global manufacturing locations.
In fact, inventory carrying costs can offset some or all of the advantages obtained
from lower labor rates. As a result, manufacturing companies will be driven to
seek manufacturing locations closer to their ultimate customer even if it means
higher labor costs.
When electronic manufacturing is established in developing countries, the
supporting infrastructure and supply base will be motivated to move with it but at
a slightly offset scale. The lack of a developed supplier base can significantly
impact the competitiveness of a manufacturing operation when the lead times are
lengthened and the inventories are increased to accommodate the need to import
components not available in the local economy. The situation is further exacer-
bated when the physical and institutional infrastructures do not support consistent
transportation intervals. In the global arena, competition occurs among full-stream
production networks, sometimes called "value chains," and not simply between
manufacturing locations. Consequently, developing countries need to understand
the potential for the entire production network, not just the assembly operations
in their country. Steps to foster a climate and infrastructure for suppliers-such as
establishing industrial parks with the appropriate facilities, duty-free zones,
simple import/duty regulations, and transportation will make the transition to
manufacturing more effective.
SUMMARY
In summary, rich information technology, globalization, and ever-increasing
global competition are the key forces driving manufacturing technology trends.
Recent improvements in manufacturing operations, supplier relationships, con-
current design tools and methodology, and the capabilities of the people who
make it all happen should provide insight into the approaches to nurturing manu-
facturing in any country. If developing countries can foster an environment in
which their manufacturing operations can realize the benefits of this changing
landscape, they will be able to enjoy the economic effects of a viable manufactur-
ing operation.
NOTES
1. Francis Stewart, "A Look at the Ups and Down," Circuits Assembly (September 1992): 25.
2. Arthur P. Cimento, Jurgen Luge, and Lothar Stein, "Excellence in Electronics," McKinsey
Quarterly 3 (1993).
3. Ibid.
4. Jeffrey H. Dyer, "Dedicated Assets: Japan's Manufacturing Edge," [Iarvard Business Review
(November-December 1994).
Representative terms from entire chapter:
electronics manufacturing
