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OCR for page 97
Technological Trends and
Applications in Biotechnology
RITA COLWELL
President, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute
Webster's defines biotechnology as "applied biological science.") The U.S.
government, however, employs a more comprehensive definition: both the old
and new biotechnologies comprise "any technique that uses living organisms (or
parts of organisms) to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or
to develop microorganisms for specific uses."2 The "new" biotechnology has
been defined by the U.S. government as "the industrial use of rDNA, cell fusion,
and novel bioprocessing techniques."3 This being said, the definition that in the
long run may be the most descriptive relative to the world economy was produced
by Vivian Moses and corporate biotechnology pioneer Ronald Cape: "making
money with biology."4
Biotechnology already has been employed successfully to manufacture new
medicines, improve agricultural production, and produce drugs from metabolites
of marine organisms, and it shows great promise in such other areas as re-
mediating environmental pollution. But its most rudimentary applications are in
fermentation that is, the use of microorganisms such as molds and bacteria to
produce food products. This application is as old as the history of human civiliza-
tion. Fermentation technology originated in ancient China, where foods were
fermented by molds, and in Egypt, where beer brewing and bread-making were
combined enterprises.5 Bread, cheese, yogurt, vinegar, soy sauce, bean curd,
beer, and wine are a few examples of the modern products of fermentation.
The unique characteristics of microorganisms have only begun to be ex-
ploited to improve life on this planet, taking into account, of course, the role of
microorganisms in the cycling of nutrients and in global climatic processes. But
the new methods and technologies are only emerging from old ones. For ex
97
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98
Marshaling Technology for Development
ample, by the end of the eighteenth century, farmers had learned to rotate crops in
order to plant crops that restored nutrients to nutrient-poor soil. And even before
the science of genetics was understood, new varieties of crops and animals were
being bred by selection for desired qualities.
Some milestones in the history of science indicate the source of this new
technology. In the field of medicine, Edward Jenner, who in the last decade of
the eighteenth century observed that milkmaids did not succumb to smallpox,
began inoculation with cowpox, or Vaccinia virus, to prevent smallpox infec-
tion. About the same time, Louis Pasteur, best known for his work that led to the
process of pasteurization and the identification of microorganisms as causative
agents of disease, studied fermentation in wine and wrote an important book on
winemaking. And around the turn of the century, German bacteriologist and
physician Robert Koch identified microorganisms as the causes of anthrax and
tuberculosis.
The first industrial use of a pure culture of a bacterium was accomplished by
Chaim Weizmann in 1917 when he developed the fermentation of cornstarch by
the bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum, thereby producing acetone for explo-
sives manufacture. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk whose studies on the pea
plant elucidated inheritance of traits via hereditary factors, conducted seminal
work in genetics in 1865. Although Mendel's work was ignored until 1900, his
findings, once rediscovered, fit well with what was by then known about chromo-
somal activity during cell division, or mitosis. The first half of the twentieth
century was an exciting time, with major gains in knowledge of genetic inherit-
ance. Thomas Hunt Morgan of Columbia University, working with the fruit fly,
Drosophila melanogaster, showed that genes, or the units of heredity, were the
constructs of chromosomes. His student A. H. Sturtevant, who later joined him
when he moved to the California Institute of Technology, made a number of
breakthrough discoveries showing genes were linked, comprising chromosomes.6
He thus began the science of genetic mapping, a technique essential to the new
genetics.
In the 1930s and 1940s, genetics research was moving inexorably in the
direction of the upcoming explosion of knowledge at the molecular level. Re-
searchers such as Barbara McClintock7 and Marcus Rhoades~ studied linkage
and mutable characteristics in maize (corn), providing a view of genes as more
mutable and variable than the simple Mendelian genetics allowed. Meanwhile,
research on what comprised genetic material moved forward rapidly. In 1928,
Frederick Griffith had found that a "transforming principle" was able to alter
traits in the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.9 By 1944, Oswald Avery,
Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty of the Rockefeller Institute had identified
the "transforming factor" as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.~° From that mo-
ment, scientists in many laboratories labored to determine the chemical structure
of the DNA molecule. Finally, in 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick's short
paper described the breakthrough for which everyone was waiting.
OCR for page 99
RITA COLWELL
GENETIC ENGINEERING: A NEW WORLD
99
Twenty years after Watson and Crick's paper, the first stones were laid in the
path to commercial genetic engineering. Stanley Cohen of Stanford University,
Herbert Boyer of the University of California (San Francisco) Medical School,
and their teams succeeded in cloning a gene into a bacterial plasmid-the first
recombinant DNA (rDNA)-and in 1980 they received a patent for this tech-
nique.~2 Alsoin 1980,theU.S. Supreme Court ruledin Diamond v. Chakraba'^~
that microorganisms could be patented, opening a new commercial avenue for
genetic engineering.~3
The first U.S. biotechnology company, Genentech, was founded in 1976. By
1994, it had been joined by more than 1,300 other companies in the United States
alone (Figure 1~.~4 The years 1981-1987 were watershed ones for U.S. biotech-
nology: an average of 90 companies were formed annually, for a total of 631
companies established during this period.iS In 1981, the first U.S.-approved
biotechnology product reached consumers: a monoclonal antibody-based diag-
nostic test kit. The following year, the first recombinant DNA pharmaceutical,
Genentech's Humulin (recombinant human insulin), was approved for sale in the
United States and Great Britain. Humulin's 1993 sales were $560 million. The
same year, the first recombinant animal vaccine for colibacillosis was approved
. ~
In Europe.
Although most biotechnology companies are still not consistently profitable,
more and more products are entering the market.~7 In 1993, Amgen's Neupogen,
500
400
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E 300
o
a 200
of
97
100
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396
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- -
Before 1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1990
Year
FIGURE 1 Evolution of the U.S. biotechnology industry.
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TABLE 1 Top Ten Biotechnology Drugs, 1993
1993 Net Sales
Product Developer/Marketer (millions)
Neupogen Amgen/Amgen $ 719
Epogen Amgen/Amgen 587
Intron A Biogen/Schering-Plough 572
Humulin Genentech/Eli Lilly 560
Procrit Amgen/Ortho Biotech 500
Engerix-B Genentech/SKB 480
RecombiNAK HE Chiron/Merck 245
Activase Genentech/Genentech 236
Protropin Genentech/Genentech 217
Roferon-A Genentech/Hoffman-La Roche 172
Total sales $4,288
SOURCE: Ernst and Young LLP.
human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, was the best-selling U.S. biotech-
nology drug, netting $719 million (Table 1~.~8 In 1994, at least four new drugs
were approved in the United States, along with a recombinant "housekeeping"
enzyme and diagnostics. One new product in another area was Calgene's Flavr
Savr tomato, engineered for better taste and shipping tolerance through the addi-
tion of a "backwards" gene that induces the tomato to produce only small amounts
of the ripening enzyme, polygalacturonase. Thus the tomato can be picked before
ripening and left to ripen slowly without adding artificial ripeners.~9 Although it
did not need approval at the time of its development, the recombinant tomato
underwent review and was approved in 1995 by the U.S. Food and Drug Admin-
istration (FDA).
In 1994, U.S. biotechnology companies had a market value of $41 billion,
R&D expenditures of $7 billion, and 103,000 employees this in an industry that
did not exist 20 years ago. By comparison, the U.S. pharmaceutical industry,
which has invested heavily in biotechnology, had R&D expenditures of $13.8
billion in 1994. Poor economic markets and policy questions in the United States
held down the number of companies formed in 1994, but instead of being in a
downturn, the U.S. biotechnology industry may be maturing, to eventually take
on a new role in the global economy. And instead of being aggressively entrepre-
neurial, with the intention of becoming the next Merck, the newly emerging
companies may well serve in the future as a reservoir of corporate research for
large pharmaceutical firms, which, in turn, will develop and market the output.
Today, however, because most of the U.S. biotechnology industry is cen-
tered on health care products and many of the companies were started on the basis
of licensing agreements or research from the university community, the decrease
,
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RITA COLWELL
101
in corporate start-ups, as well as financing, is causing a basic change in the
structure of the industry. Smaller companies are merging; large companies, such
as the major pharmaceutical companies, are acquiring smaller biotechnology
ventures; and, because there is little money available in the investment market for
corporate growth, companies are looking to strategic alliances, both in the United
States and abroad, to shore up finances and financial opportunities. This develop-
ment may prove beneficial for Asian pharmaceutical or biotechnology companies
looking for products in return for allowing access to the Asian market. But many
of the developing countnes, lacking homegrown pharmaceutical giants, will have
to look elsewhere for role models for their own fledgling biotechnology indus-
tries.
The United States is not the sole benefactor of biotechnology growth. In
1993, 386 biotechnology companies were located in Europe, most in Great Bnt-
ain, Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands (Figure 2~.20 From 1986 to 1992,
about $657 million was pumped by venture capitalists into the European biotech-
nology industry. The major biotechnology players in Western Europe are Bel-
gium, Denmark, France (whose 1991 market for biotechnology products was
$115 million, $29 million of which were imports), Germany, Italy (with a 1995
biotechnology market estimated at $1.5 billion), the Netherlands (whose 1991
biotechnology product and process sales equaled $220 million,, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom. In 1993, Canada had 310 biotechnology companies, with rev-
enues of $1.67 billion and 61 percent of total sales from exports.2i Ten percent of
Canada's biotechnology exports go to Japan, while an additional 10 percent go to
China, India, South America, and the Caribbean. A handful of companies are
20
15
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it.'
11~
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Before 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
1 980
l
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l
,, ,,,,,,f,,,,<) _ .
_
_
1~>'~
FIGURE 2 Evolution of European biotechnology industry (percent of companies found-
ed in each year). SOURCE: Ernst and Young LLP.
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Marshaling Technology for Development
scattered in South and Central America (mainly in Brazil and Mexico) and Asia
(excluding Japan). Approximately 200 biotechnology companies are located in
Australia and an additional 40 in New Zealand. Japan's biotechnology industry
differs from the entrepreneurial industry in the United States, Canada, Europe,
and Australia in that much of Japan's biotechnology R&D is carried out by
universities and research institutes or in cooperation with its large pharmaceutical
firms, food corporations, brewing companies, or electronics giants. The R&D
outlays of Japan's top ten pharmaceutical companies are only one-fifth of similar
outlays by U.S. companies.22
In most developing nations, there is little in the way of commercial biotech-
nology, but governments and researchers acknowledge the importance of the
field, and government and nongovernmental organization support have led to
establishment of biotechnology-related centers. For example, the International
Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), initiated by the
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) but now sup-
ported by Italy and India, has two laboratories: one in Trieste, Italy, and the other
in New Delhi. Research groups from 32 member countries are affiliated with
ICGEg 23
The M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation in Madras is a leader in the
promotion of biotechnology at the village level in India. Other prominent bio-
technology research institutes in India are New Delhi's Energy Research Institute
and a national institute of cellular and molecular biology in Hyderabad. Hindustan
Lever, a subsidiary of Lever Brothers, has a large corporate biotechnology divi-
sion in India (Kamaljit Bawa, University of Massachusetts, personal communica-
tion, October 28, 1994~.
In the Far East, the Hong Kong Institute of Biotechnology, under the aus-
pices of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, was established with the help of
overseas Chinese scientists.24 Hong Kong also has a Biotechnology Research
Institute. Of the many biotechnology-related research departments and institutes
in the People's Republic of China, one of the oldest and best known is the
Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry.25 The International Vaccine Institute being
established in South Korea is receiving financial assistance from the United
Nations Development Fund and the Japanese government.26 Thailand's National
Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, which has a marine biotech-
nology laboratory, was begun with support from the U.S. Agency for Interna-
tional Development (USAID). Aquaculture is a major theme of other biotechnol-
ogy research centers and university departments in Thailand.
Worldwide, many national and international organizations maintain labora-
tories that carry out research in biotechnology, mostly related to agriculture. One
example is the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. Another is
the Biotechnology Centre for Animal and Plant Health, established by the Euro-
pean Union, in partnership with the Queen's University of Northern Ireland in
Belfast, which focuses primarily on disease control.27
/
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RITA CoL~L
103
In Africa, the French molecular genetics researcher Daniel Cohen and his
organization, Association Ifriqya, are planning to establish the Institute for Ge-
nome Research for Developing Countries (IGRDC) in Hammamet, Tunisia, in
1996.28 The Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institute (AGERI) in
Cairo, Egypt, is cooperating with Michigan State University's Agricultural Bio-
technology for Sustainable Productivity (ABSP) project, supported by USAID.29
The African network of Microbiological Resources Centres (MIRCENs), al-
though not a research group per se, is organized to support research projects in
soil microbiology, biotechnology, natural resources management, vegetable pro-
duction and protection, and food and nutritional technology at research organiza-
tions and universities throughout Africa south of the Sahara.30 The International
Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) is located in Nairobi,
Kenya.
MARKET SEGMENTS AND RESEARCH AREAS
In the United States, and to a lesser degree in Canada and Europe, the bulk of
the biotechnology industry is in the biomedical field: therapeutics and diagnos-
tics make up 68 percent of the U.S. industry, 43.7 percent of the Canadian
industry, and approximately 43 percent of the European industry. From 1993 to
1994, therapeutic product sales in the United States increased 24 percent, for a
total of nearly $20 billion.
Agricultural biotechnology also represents a growing segment of the indus-
try: 8 percent in the United States, 20 percent in Europe, and 28 percent in
Canada. The U.S. agricultural biotechnology market increased its sales by 158
percent in 1993, with aquaculture the most rapidly growing sector.3i
The chemical, environmental, and services segment, which makes up only 9
percent of the U.S. biotechnology industry, increased its sales by 81 percent in
1993, totaling $70 billion.32 This segment comprises 10 percent of the Canadian
industry.
Biomedical
Medical biotechnology mainly includes recombinant drugs and enzyme-me-
diated diagnostic kits, but the rational design of drugs, where a drug is modeled to
fit a particular molecule, yielding a limited response that can result in control of
the disease process, has become a significant part of this field. By learning more
about the basic biochemistry of normal and abnormal cellular function, scientists
eventually will produce drugs that will prevent the abnormal growth of cancer
cells, or will permit detection of the abnormalities in the DNA that signal the
onset of cancerous changes, thereby preventing cancer from occurring. Another
intent is to circumvent the immune response to one's own tissue that occurs in
such autoimmune diseases as multiple sclerosis and lupus erythematosus. The
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Marshaling Technology for Development
hope also is to use small molecules to combat degenerative neurological diseases
or to induce neurological cell regrowth in such conditions as Alzheimer's dis-
ease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, head and spinal injury, and cerebrovascular
accident or stroke.33 Some of the already successful recombinant drugs include
recombinant human insulin, growth hormone, interferons, tissue plasminogen
activator, erythropoietin, and other blood cell-stimulating factors. Thus biotech-
nology and pharmaceutical companies legitimately have high hopes for the eco-
nomic and medical potential of the next generation of drugs.
Among the most successful of the antibody-based diagnostics are pregnancy
test kits, which now are so simple that in the United States they can be purchased
over the counter and used at home. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) test
kits are being sold worldwide and are manufactured in many parts of the world.
The U.S. market for monoclonal antibodies, the majority of which are used in
such test kits, was estimated at $1.2 billion this year and to be nearly $4 billion by
the turn of the century. As test kits become both more accurate and easier to use,
test kit manufacturers foresee wide applicability, even in rural settings, by techni-
cians with minimal training. Some companies, for example, have sent personnel
to China and South America to train technicians in the proper use of their test kits.
Monoclonal antibodies were expected to become major tools for the treat-
ment of a variety of diseases, but recent problems with monoclonal antibody-
based septic shock treatments caused several companies such as Xoma, Centocor,
Chiron, and Synergen to abandon drugs in clinical trials.34
Recombinant vaccines are expected to make a major contribution to the
health of the world's population. Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine already is used
worldwide. Although an HIV vaccine would have enormous use, especially in
those countries where HIV is widespread, little success has been achieved and not
much is on the horizon, at least at present. Research on HIV vaccines that would
be beneficial to those people outside the developed nations, who suffer from a
different strain of HIV than that found in the United States and western Europe, is
not being pursued aggressively.35 In contrast, vaccines against malaria, respira-
tory syncytial virus (RSV), rotavirus (which causes severe, life-threatening diar-
rhea in children), Streptococcus pneumonias (which causes bacterial pneumo-
nia), and cholera, are being pursued actively and will have an immediate impact
on global health.36 Although new vaccines and vaccine combinations could im-
prove the health of many children worldwide,37 a recent study showed that the
world vaccine market stands at a mere $3 billion,38 a relatively insignificant
value when compared to the $1.2 billion world sales of just one new biotechnol-
ogy drug, recombinant human erythropoietin (Amgen's Epogen).39
Drug delivery systems are an important segment of the biomedical compo-
nent of the biotechnology industry.40 New methods of administering vaccines-
by injection, intra-nasally by spray, time-release methods, and others still under
development and even drugs, could revolutionize health care in developing
nations and in poor or rural communities in developed countries.4i
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RITA COLWELL
105
Other, much smaller and more specialized medical biotechnology markets
include treatment regimens, such as gene therapy. In gene therapy, which cur-
rently is employed for research purposes only, a normal gene is put into abnormal
cells using a carrier such as a virus. In "cellular therapy" a patient's cells are
treated. An example of this is autologous bone marrow transplants, where a
patient's bone marrow is removed, cleansed of cancer cells if they are present,
grown in tissue culture, then reinfected into the patient who usually has an
advanced cancer after the patient undergoes therapy to destroy the remaining
bone marrow. Because such techniques are prohibitively expensive, they are used
sparingly. Gene therapy requires high-technology medical centers and a high
level of training for all staff members involved in patient care. Clearly, even in
developed nations these treatments are available only to the very wealthy, the
very well insured, or enrollees in sponsored clinical trials.
Agriculture
Agricultural biotechnology is expected to become the predominant applica-
tion of biotechnology in developing countries. In Africa,42 Asia, Central and
South America,43 and the Middle East,44 development of transgenic plants,
biological pest control, tissue culture techniques for agriculture, microbial prod-
ucts for nutrient cycling, pathogen diagnostics for crops, and genetic mapping of
tropical crops are major concerns. In developed nations, the term value added is
used to denote the economic value of agricultural biotechnology products. Thus
agricultural biotechnology in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Aus-
tralia aims to produce products, such as fruit, vegetables and grains, whose ge-
netic manipulation will provide new products that will cost more or bring greater
profit to commercial entities than the standard hybrid product. Today in the
United States the best-known commercial agricultural biotechnology products
include Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato; Monsanto's recombinant bovine somato-
trophin (B ST) or growth hormone, which yields increased milk production by
cows; frost-resistant strawberries; and biological pest control, which may include
the introduction of genes from Bacillus thuringiensis and other bacteria, fungi, or
viruses into plants, rendering the plants pest-resistant,45 and the production of
biopesticides via gene isolation and fermentation. Less well known is the produc-
tion of recombinant rennin, an enzyme used in cheese manufacture, approved by
FDA in 1990.46
Transgenic plants are those in which foreign genes have been introduced to
improve a specific quality or characteristic of the plant. In the case of the Flavr
Savr tomato, transportability is improved, an important factor in areas where
fruits and vegetables must be transported long distances to market. Since the
developed nations such as the United States are dependent on Central and
South American countries for fruits, especially during winter and early spring,
before the harvests in Florida and California, these technologies could increase
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Marshaling Technology for Development
the marketability of imported crops. Moreover, the introduction of foreign DNA
could improve the protein quality of some foods, an important consideration for
developing countries not only for human foods but also for animal feeds. Re-
searchers also are working on improving the nutritional qualities of food starches
and oils.
Biological pest control, a technique used in Asia for several millennia, has
made great strides since the United States began to import B. thuringiensis into
the United States from China in the late 1970s.47 B. thuringiensis is engineered
for inclusion in many plants, including grains, and it also is manufactured by
recombinant techniques for use as a spray. Other means of biological pest con-
trol include virus resistance incorporated into the plant genome.48 A virus-
resistant squash is being reviewed by the USDA for approval in the United
States; China is marketing a virus-resistant tomato; and potatoes resistant to
virus are undergoing testing in Mexico. Scientists in Costa Rica are working to
introduce virus-resistant genes into the criollo melon.49 Recently, investigators
identified a number of genes within crops themselves that confer disease resis-
tance.s° Thus it is only a matter of time until such genes are introduced into
nonresistant species.
An important field in agricultural biotechnology will be the use of marker or
"reporter" genes within transgenic species.si These genes are attached to func-
tional genes introduced into plant cells, where their presence will indicate if the
functional genes are working. Recently, researchers at the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and University of Wisconsin inserted a gene for green fluorescent
protein, derived from the jellyfish, Aequorea Victoria, into orange tree cells.59
This is a unique melding of agricultural and marine biotechnology and is an early
example of more unique genetic introductions to come.
Much of the improvement in crops depends on improved plant tissue culture
techniques and techniques for plant micropropagation. In tissue culture, indi-
vidual cells are separated, genetically modified for desirable traits, and grown on
nutrient media. Hormonal growth enhancers, nutrients (some of which are pro-
duced by tissue culture), and other additives determine the viability of the cells
maintained in culture. In micropropagation, tiny plantlets are grown from cells
started in tissue culture, all genetically the same, for distribution to farmers.
Agricultural production can be increased not only by direct manipulation of
plants, but also by the addition of naturally occurring or genetically manipulated
microorganisms.53 Some of these organisms can be grown in batch fermenters;
others require nurturing on host plants.
Agricultural products do not necessarily result in food products for the con-
sumer market. Better plastics and biodegradable disposable items may be pro-
duced from plant extracts or refuse. Plant refuse, such as corn husks and stalks,
also can be used to produce alcohols and other fuels such as ethanol. Finally,
plants and animals can be genetically engineered to produce drugs and other
biologically active molecules. In fact, the entire tobacco program of the USDA is
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RITA CoL~L
107
now funded only for research on production of bioactive compounds from trans-
genic tobacco plants.
Not to be forgotten, plants, like humans, become diseased. Thus it is essen-
tial that simple diagnostic tests be developed for early detection of disease.
Marine Biotechnology
Marine biotechnology, which represents a small segment of the biotechnol-
ogy industry in the United States, approximately 85 companies or about 7
percent of all biotechnology companies has applications in medicine, agricul-
ture, materials science, natural products chemistry, and bioremediation. Because
of the proximity of most of the world's tropical nations to the oceans, as well as
their climates, these nations are particularly well suited to pursue marine biotech-
nology.
Aquaculture, a branch of marine biotechnology, is closely related to agricul-
ture and is often included under that classification. Worldwide, marine aquacul-
ture produced 14 million metric tons of fish in 1991,54 with a market value of
approximately $28 billion.55 Demand for seafood worldwide is expected to in-
crease by 70 percent over the next 35 years,56 but this increase comes at a time
when the world's fisheries are overexploited or "commercially extinct."57 Thus
world aquaculture will need to increase production sevenfold by the year 2025 in
order to meet the demand. USDA has predicted that biotechnology will aid in the
improvement of captive management and reproduction of species, leading to
more efficient species that make better use of food supplies and the production of
healthier organisms with improved food and nutritional qualities. Furthermore,
aquaculture can produce organisms for use as biomedical models in research,
reservoirs for bioactive molecule production, and agents useful in bioremediation.
Aquaculture is no longer a means of producing luxury foods, such as lobsters; it
is a critical solution to the world's fisheries problems.
Algal aquaculture, an ancient art in Asia, produces not only seaweeds, but
also food supplements, such as the omega-3 fatty acids and beta carotene, through
microalgal cultivation.58 The polysaccharides of algae are a valuable commodity
and a much sought-after natural product.
Animal Husbandry
One of the first approved biotechnology products offered on the market was
an rDNA vaccine against colibacillosis. Thus animal husbandry was among the
first sectors into which a commercial biotechnology product was introduced.
Transgenic animals, such as pigs and cows, can be engineered for traits allowing
better survival in marginal habitats, the production of more meat of higher qual-
ity, or even the production of recombinant pharmaceutical molecules for the
human health care market.
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RITA COLWELL
117
researchers and corporations that later develop these materials into drugs believe
they should be rewarded for their information, in some cases with a patent. A
recent review of patent law, however, concluded that this information cannot be
protected by patents.~33 Likewise, it has been suggested that unique, indigenous
plants be patented, but, again, naturally occurring organisms that are not products
of breeding programs or any scientific genetic manipulation are not now patent-
able.~34 At the very least, however, these plants may be eligible for protection by
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) under newly proposed IUCN categories.~35 Although this conven-
tion imparts no economic rights, it gives originating countries some degree of
control over who takes the plants, where the plants are sent, and what uses will be
made of them. One recently published book suggested that a radical change is
needed in the concept of intellectual property, putting value on culturally trans-
mitted knowledge as well as discoveries,~36 but this is unlikely to occur in the
near future. Some of these issues were addressed at the Convention on Biological
Diversity (also known as the Rio Convention), but they were not spelled out
clearly and none of the current agreements fully address them.~37
In dealing with biological prospecting, also called accessing, all sides have
to consider both what is fair and what is workable. Recently, a group of interna-
tional Pew Charitable Trust scholars met to write ethical guidelines for bio-
accessing that cover the behavior of and interactions with scientists, gene banks,
and intergovernmental organizations. The guidelines propose that scientists treat
indigenous peoples with respect, have local people serve as co-researchers, and
ensure that the local communities receive equitable compensation for any prod-
ucts derived from locally collected and documented plant, microorganism, or
animal-derived resources. Such guidelines will be effective only if there is a way
to enforce agreements.
Although the Pew scholars may ask professional organizations to enforce
member compliance, they also will append guidelines to an enforceable interna-
tional treaty such as the Rio Convention. Janzen et al. have explained what a
biodiversity research agreement between a researcher and "in-country biodiversity
custodians" should include, but currently such arrangements vary.~38 The agree-
ment between INBio and Merck gives the Costa Ricans cash in advance, trained
personnel in the form of "parataxonomists" who can identify plants, and a per-
centage of sales of any products derived.~39 In contrast, the director of a her-
barium in a southeast Asian country that has many unique plant species was
approached by a large university from outside the region requesting that the
herbarium provide it with local plant materials in exchange for vehicles and
funding to pay for collecting the plants. The herbarium director, believing quite
rightly that the university was taking advantage of his institution's impoverished
condition, asked for a cooperative agreement between his institution, local uni-
versities, and the organization that requested the plant material, as well as some
control over the material. The university was never heard from again and the
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Marshaling Technology for Development
herbarium director was roundly criticized by his colleagues for letting a "golden
opportunity" pass. Although guidelines cannot cover all situations one scholar
involved in drafting the Pew guidelines admitted they do not cover his research
situation they may aid in reaching fair and equitable agreements. The Brazilian
government is now considering an industrial property bill that could be used as a
model for determining compensatory agreements between the accessors and the
sources of biodiversity.~40
An added problem in dealing with biodiversity accessing is enforcement of
the Rio Convention. For example, the United States is one of the major forces for
worldwide conservation, but it is not yet an official signatory of the convention.
President Bill Clinton, without congressional approval, signed the treaty but with
interpretative statements on Articles 16 (technology transfer) and 19 (biosafety
protocols).~4i A Republican-dominated Congress is not likely to approve the
. . . .
n~t~at~ve.
Safety and Ethical Issues
Although problems are associated with the public's perception of the safety
of GMOs, i42 numerous field trials have been carried out worldwide, t43 and since
1987 field tests of more than 860 transgenic crops have been approved in the
United States; at least another 250 tests have been approved in Europe since
1991.~44 Regulation and safety protocols may be accomplished with the assis-
tance of international oversight organizations and by agreements, or through
national or local laws. UNIDO's "Voluntary Code of Conduct for the Release of
Organisms into the Environment" was conceived as a basic document from which
a more specific code could be built.~45 Governments lacking internal expertise
can call on advice from the Stockholm Institute for Environment, funded jointly
by the Swedish government and the Rockefeller Foundation. Perhaps a new
international nongovernmental commission on GMOs could aid countries that
need assistance in formulating regulations and evaluate projects being considered
for implementation within their borders.
There is concern that biotechnology-based products may lead to pressure on
consumers to purchase value-added products they may not need. The Rural Ad-
vancement Foundation International worries that the addition of genetically engi-
neered human proteins, produced by transgenic cows, into infant formula may
lead the infant formula industry to undertake aggressive marketing techniques,
especially in developing countries.~46 Other questions about safety and efficacy
revolve around new medical technologies. Clinical trial requirements are more
complex in some countries than in others, and review may be shorter in some
countries, allowing a drug to enter the marketplace in Europe, for example,
earlier than in the United States.~47 This in itself is not a problem, but it will
become one if a drug or vaccine is unavailable in the location with the greatest
need. For example, in the recent bubonic and pneumonic plague epidemics in
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RITA COLWELL
119
India, a major problem was obtaining vaccine. An effective vaccine against pneu-
monic and bubonic plague had been manufactured in the United States by Cutter
Laboratories, but in 1992 Cutter sold the rights to the vaccine to another com-
pany. Because FDA regulations required that the vaccine be treated as a new
product and undergo testing, it was not available when urgently needed.~48 Inter-
national cooperation, and some foresight on the part of governments, should have
been able to resolve this problem long before it became an urgent one. Compa-
nies may opt for testing a product in a country with fewer controls. For example,
because the U.S. National Institutes of Health are delaying tests of a HIV vaccine
that many fear will not be effective, the manufacturers are considering carrying
out trials in Thailand.~49
Other Obstacles
Other obstacles to the universal adoption of biotechnology projects and prod-
ucts are cultural, educational, economic, governmental, and infrastructural in
nature. If, for example, difficulties are encountered in delivering agricultural
products to market, no change in the qualities of those products will overcome the
infrastructural problems. In other words, there is no reason to introduce geneti-
cally engineered apples that ship better in a region where the apples rot on the
trees because they cannot be shipped to market. Introducing a complicated test kit
for clinical use by marginally trained employees will not yield the expected
public health benefits, especially if requirements such as a "cold chain" are
involved. A recent attempt to introduce clinical test kit panels into China failed
because the enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) tests, although relatively
simple to use by U.S. standards, were deemed too complex and time-consuming
by the Chinese distributor.
When introducing new crops, one must be able to distribute the starter mate-
rial and explain to the farmers how best to plant and grow the crops.~s° In order
to vaccinate people against disease, an infrastructure must be in place to ensure
that the vaccine reaches the people who need it. The introduction of sophisticated
technology into an area where the supply of electricity is erratic will not lead to
progress unless changes are made in the way electricity is supplied. Moreover,
complicated regulations or corrupt governments can inhibit the flow of new
technologies. For example, recently an act of the Romanian parliament was re-
quired to import a biotechnology product needed by a local area. And the
INBio-Merck agreement is successful in part because the Costa Rican government
is not corrupt, but many governments foster corruption or look the other way.i52
Finally, as noted earlier, unless the public understands both the value of and
need for advances in biotechnology, problems of acceptance of biotechnology
products will persist.i53 Thus biotechnology products and processes, even those
discovered and proposed for use in developing nations, should include not only
the introduction of the technology but also public education.
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Marshaling Technology for Development
What Technologies Will Work in Developing Countries?
What will work? In 1990, a National Research Council committee produced
a list of 98 plant biotechnology projects for USAID support in developing coun-
tries. The list ranged from the development of restriction fragment length poly-
morphism (RFLP) maps of such plants as sorghum, cowpea, and potato, to tree
tissue culture and studies of the role of-biotechnology in plant agriculture.~54
Fruits, vegetables, and grains with improved nutrient content and disease resis-
tance will add significant value to agriculture. Integrated pest management, a
form of the "old" biotechnology well known in some of the developing nations,
could be expanded.
Marine biotechnology, including aquaculture of fish, algae, and microalgae,
is a genuinely viable area for wide application in developing nations, especially
in light of the severe overfishing that is occurring today. Many countries, espe-
cially those in the Pacific Rim, already have some expertise in this area, and in
others expertise could be developed with the appropriate training. Marine bio-
technology programs and aquaculture not only will provide food for the table, but
also can develop products from natural resources.
Vaccines and pharmaceuticals that improve public health and decrease infant
mortality, as well as test kits that permit screening of large proportions of at-risk
populations for transmissible, even hereditary, disease will be welcomed into the
markets of developing nations. In fact, nations should be encouraged to form the
infrastructure necessary to develop their own vaccines, especially "orphan vac-
cines" for tropical diseases specific to their country. Thailand, for example, is
developing its own vaccine production capability.
Programs for alternative energy sources, especially for countries that are
dependent on imported fossil fuels, should be encouraged. Methane gas produc-
tion, as well as the production of bioethanol and other fuels, may be an economi-
cally advantageous means of augmenting the use of fossil fuels, hydroelectricity,
and nuclear power.
Environmental bioremediation can be used to introduce or upgrade public
sanitation, clean polluted soil and water, and clean up toxic environments.
Finally, the development of databases, especially related to depositories of
biological material, also may be important projects for international cooperation.
The establishment and use of germplasm banks not only will help to preserve
biodiversity but also will save food resources for future use.
CONCLUSION
Because science is international, international advisory panels, oversight
groups, biodiversity consortia, research and granting organizations, and scientific
societies are agents for problem solving on a global level and pooling resources
across national boundaries. International organizations such as the World Bank
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RITA CoL~L
121
and the United Nations, together with international treaties such as the biodiversity
treaty, can sponsor the establishment of databases and networks that will allow
greater international communication and cooperation. The technologies are ready
for exploitation; it is the financing and the will to put these technologies into
place that are needed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The excellent and critical assistance of Dr. Myrna Watanabe in preparation
of this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
NOTES
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
marshaling technology
