|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 62
Physical Properties
of Building Stone
EUGENE C. ROBERTSON
Porosity and permeability seem to be the most important physical properties
affecting weathering and deterioration of building stones by water and gases.
Thermal and mechanical properties, because of their effects on permeability,
chemical reactions, strength, and stability, can be important In diagnosing
decay processes in stones; but optical, electncal, and magnetic properties have
little significance in deterioration processes. Measurement of physical prop-
erties on small laboratory samples of any rock type range widely because the
composition and character of every rock type differ according to locality. Var-
iations in physical properties because of compositional and textural inhom-
ogeneities can be seen in small to large quarried blocks or in rock in place and
can be more significant in explaining rock deterioration than laboratory tests
of the physical properties of selected small samples of rock. Examples of in-
homogeneities are intercalated shaley layers, calcite, limonite, or clay cements;
thin to thick bedding; mineral variations within beds in sedimentary rocks;
foliation; induration; microfractunng; and incipient to open jointing.
Certain physical properties of building stones are very important in
determining the susceptibility of stones to natural weathering or de-
terioration caused by pollution, whereas other properties have negli-
gible influence. Most physical properties are discussed in this paper,
Eugene C. Robertson is Geophysicist, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
62
OCR for page 63
Physical Properties of Building Stone
63
and distinctions are drawn between physical properties measured on
small laboratory samples and those observed on stone in place or in
large blocks. Chemical properties of building stones need to be con-
sidered in conjunction with physical properties in studying processes
of deterioration, and they are covered elsewhere in these proceedings.
The comprehensive book on properties and durability of stone by
Erhard Winkleri has been helpful in preparing this report. Other books
containing data on physical properties of building stones are those of
Bowles,2 Merrill,3 Schaffer,4 and Winkler.5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Samples of one type of rock obtained from different localities, inev-
itably differ considerably in their properties because of variability in
the composition and texture of the rock among the localities. Even
though the chosen samples with the same rock name might appear
form, their measured properties would vary so widely that an av-
erage value for that rock type would be: misreading. Therefore, it seems
appropriate to give only ranges of values for physical properties of
common building and monument stones (Table 11. The names of rocks
are quite general in their geologic usage As in this report), and are even
less specific in stone industry usage. For a few rocks for which only a
few measurements have been published (e.g., soapstone and serpen-
tinitel, the range limits in Table 1 were estimated by comparing values
with those of other types of rocks.
Porosity and permeability are probably the most important physical
properties of rocks for studies of decay and corrosion of building and
monument stones. This is because these properties characterize the
accessibility of water to the interior of the stones and because water
in all of its three phases is perhaps the most important substance
affecting the weathering and deterioration of the stones. Thermal and
mechanical properties are next in importance in the decay of rocks.
Optical, electrical, and magnetic properties have very little importance.
Physical properties depend primarily on the origin and geologic his-
tory of each rock. Because mineral composition and texture differ ac-
cording to the varying geologic histories of rocks, the values of physical
properties range widely {Table 11. Building stones are polycrystalline
mineral aggregates, not single crystals. Thus intergranular bonding,
pore shape and size, and fabric are more important than the physical
properties of individual mineral grains, even including their anisotropy.
OCR for page 64
64
lo; ~
r
I_
0\
00
rib
-
U'
be
m
o
cn
·_'
o
C.
v
':~% ~
0 .-
3
.=
O to
a; ~
as;
Em
.~
4 -
o
-
C~
v
.S
An
. -
o
Cal
~9
He ~
-
v
c`4
Go
V
:i u'
TIC
lo
-
, ~
_ V
~4
o
-
· =— I
- a
~ o~
V -
v
Qtb
AD
Ed
V
o
~ ~ 'O
.=
CC CO ~
~ ~ O
ILL co =-
O ~ o
·o it,
=.=
hO
Lr)
q ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ .
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~
o ~ c~
.o.s
;~7 s.~=
o o o o o o o o o o o =g ~
~ =- ~
~ .- c~
~ ~ cO
o ~ c~ e~-c~~ tts
·v
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ d- ~ ~ ~
_ ~ o ~ C~ ~ C~ O C~ C ~ · O
o ~ I I ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ·V
_ ~ Oo.= ~
E
~o ~ ~,4 .=
o _
S
v m- . -
_ ~ _ ~ oo ox ~ ~ ~ oo ~ ~ o
. . . . . . _ V
o ~ V ~ ~ O—
C~ ~ ~ ~ O O e~ ~ CO ~ V
Oi ~ — ~ ~ C~ C~ ~ .t ~ ~ ·=
C ~ ~ D C
et ~ ~ ~ C
~ ~ O ~ L~ _ _ ~
t~ ~ C? ~ O. o _ O ~ ~ 1- ~ ~
_ _ o _ _ o o O _ O O O O
00 00000000000
e~ O c~ 0\ ~D Ox — ~ ~ ~ ~ Lo O~
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 17747~ 1 ~°1 1 -
_ _ c~ C~ _ _ ~
O — O O — O O O O O O O O
oo _
_ ~ O O
. . . . . . . · . . _ ~ . .
~ ~ i0 ~ ~ ~ 40 ~ Ol Ol _ Ol Ol
O O O O O O O O O O O O O
U) O O O LO
t ~ r 7 4 1 7 7 7 I I I
00 0 0 0 0 0 00
D O —D ~ 8 — E
D ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C E ~ o ~ E
OCR for page 65
Physical Properties of Building Stone
65
Aggregation Properties
The density, porosity, and permeability of rocks are different measures
of the state of aggregation of the mineral grains that make up the rock
and are measures of the accessibility of fluids, pnncipally air and water,
into and through the rock. Geologic history determines the aggregation.
Density
Grain density, PG, is the ratio of grain mass to grain volume of rock
having no porosity. The values in Table 1 are bulk densities, PB, which
are the mass of grains divided by pore volume plus grain volume.
Measurements of PA by immersion methods on whole samples can be
in error by as much as 10 percent owing to incomplete saturation of
inaccessible pores; PB measurements would be more accurate. The p,:
measured on a crushed sample would give a more reliable value.
Moen put lower and upper density limits of 1.7 to 2.2 g/cm3 on
commercial stone that would be favorable for preparation and work-
ing.6 By his criteria, stones having a density greater than 2.2 g/cm3 are
too hard to work easily with masonry tools, and stones having a density
less than 1.7 g/cm3 are too soft and easily weathered. However, those
having densities above 2.2 g/cm3 resist weathering better than stones
with lower densities and can be worked with modern abrasives and
machines.
Porosity
Porosity, +, is the ratio of pore volume to bulk volume. Porosities of
common building stones are listed in Table 1. Porosity of igneous and
metamorphic rocks is low, usually less than 5 percent, but it can be
as high as 40 percent for sedimentary rocks. Pores are important in
rock decay because they are receptacles for fluids and sources of weak-
ness for ambient stresses. Hudec found that weathering of stone is
enhanced by decrease in pore sized
Mineralogy ~nc3 degree of metamorphism cause sizes and shapes of
pores to differ in sandstone and shale and to differ in quartzite and
slate. Clay and mica minerals make up half of most samples of shale
and slate; they occur as closely packed, parallel flakes, which make
for tabular and very small pore spaces, about 0.01 ,um across in most
shales. Porosities of shale and slate range from 30 to 0.1 percent, de-
pending on the degree of compaction, diagenesis, and metamorphism.
In sandstones, porosity does not depend on grain size but does depend
OCR for page 66
66
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
on sorting of the original sand grains. For example, in unconsolidated
sand beds, porosity ranges from 40 percent in very well sorted sands to
25 percent in very poorly sorted sands. In addition, compaction of sand-
stone and deposition of silica or other mineral cement in quartzite can
reduce markedly the pore size, porosity, and permeability (Table 11.
Permeability
The ease of flow of fluid through a rock is defined empirically by
Darcy's law, in which the flow depends on the permeability of the
rock and on the pressure and viscosity of the fluid:
Q = ,uP/v (L/A),
al)
where Q is discharge in cubic centimeters per second, ~ is permeability
in darcies, P is pressure difference in bars, v is fluid viscosity in cen-
tipoises, L is distance of flow in centimeters, and A is cross-sectional
area In square centimeters.
Intrinsic permeabilities obtained by laboratory measurements of in-
tact samples of building and monument stones are listed in Table 1.
Joints and fractures increase the permeability of rocks in place at shal-
low depths by 10 to 100 times the intrinsic values for samples of solid
rock given in Table 1. This increase is described in a very compre-
hensive review of the permeability of rocks.
Water at 200° C, flowing through granite having 10-3 darcy crack
permeability, dissolved and reprecipitated enough silica in one month
to reduce the permeability to 10-4 darcy.~3 Silicate and carbonate
rocks are susceptible to such sealing by dissolution and reprecipi-
tation of silica and carbonate ions.
Most research on intrinsic permeability has been performed on
sedimentary rocks; workers have studied the effects of porosity, pore
size and shape, and mineralogy. Data were obtained in studies of
the migration of oil and gas. Very few equivalent data are available
for igneous and metamorphic rocks. The permeabilities of stones
range from several hundred darcies in river sand, through 0.1 darcy
for common sandstone of 20 percent porosity, to 10-9 darcy for
common shale. Clay minerals in shale or sandstone reduce perme-
ability markedly because the pores between clay particles are very
small; smectite clays in a rock expand by water absorption, further
reducing permeability.
Figure 1 presents points from measurements on five sandstones
in rows labeled by their porosities, which range from 8 to 22 percent;
OCR for page 67
Physical Properties of Building Stone
10
10-1
-
c~
au
. _
cat
10-2
J
m
LO
10-3
10-4
10-5
1- _
10-6
10-3
67
// Porosity
9~ ////
50% o/
33%
10%
19
15
8
10-2 10-1
PORE RADIUS (,um)
1 10 10+2
FIGURE 1 Effect of pore size on permeability of five sandstones having porosities as
shown; a mercury injection technique was used on cores. The symbols aligned hori-
zontally with each porosity percentage in the right column are for measurements on a
separate rock. The percentages marked on the lines represent the proportion of pores
larger than the pore radius for a given permeability on the ordinate axis Redrawn from
Blatt et al.~.~4
OCR for page 68
68
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
the permeability, A, is plotted against pore size, eliminating grain
size, sorting, and cement characteristics. The percentages on the
lines show relatively how many pores are larger for any point on
the line. The line on the right is for sandstones in which 10 percent
of the pores are larger than those found on the abscissa for a given
,u" on the ordinate; the line on the left is for sandstones in which 10
percent of the pores are smaller for a given A. As might be expected
intuitively, the permeability of sandstones varies exponentially with
porosity and with pore size.
Figure 2 shows the effects resulting from differing contents of two
clay minerals on the permeabilities of several sandstones of similar
1
10-1
._
cat
-
_ 10-2
J
m
LU
UJ
cot
/Kaolinite /
Kite l
)
/
10-41 1 1 —r 1 1 1 -1
0 4 8
12 16 20 24 28
POROSITY (%)
FIGURE 2 Variation of permeability with two types of clay con-
tained in several sandstones of sirn~lar porosities Imodified from
Blatt et al.~.l4
OCR for page 69
Physical Properties of Building Stone
10
10-,
m
us ~—2
~ 1u
llJ
10-3
10-4
HA
~ 4~ 1
(
ALL
0 10 20 30
1 1 1 1
POROSITY (%)
FIGURE 3 Vanation of permeability with specific in-
ternal surface areas (shown in cm2/cm3 inside enclosed
areas) of six sandstones having a range of porosity
{modified from Blatt et ~.i.~4
69
porosities. The specific surface areas (cm2/cm3) of six sandstones of
varying porosity are shown inside the enclosed areas in Figure 3.
Specific surface area is high for fine-grained, low-permeability sand-
stones; it is Tow for coarse-grained, high-permeability sandstones.
Physical Models for Aggregation Properties
The intrinsic density, porosity, and permeability of a sample would
appear to be closely related, judging from their definitions. However,
measured values of these properties differ from absolutely accurate
values enough so that they cannot be calculated exactly from each
OCR for page 70
70
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
other. The differences are probably due to the effects of isolation, small
size, en c! irregular shape of some pores, leading to incomplete satu-
ration by the measuring fluid en c] diminished accuracy of measure-
ment. The following discussion and equations are meant to provide
the reader with some understanding of- what physical characteristics
are important and to permit calculations for comparison purposes.
The porosity, ˘, of a dry rock that is, the ratio of pore volume to
bulk volume is given in terms of densities by:
(> (PG PB)/PG.
(2)
A good value of pore volume is needed to obtain PA, but it is not easy
to measure closely. However, as PA can be calculated from the rock's
mineral composition, and as PB is more easily measured, a reasonable
estimate of ~ can be calculated from equation 2.
A relation between porosity, ˘, and permeability, A, was found em-
pirically by Kozeny:~4
it= 106~/2t2S2,
t3)
where ~ is in darcies, ~ is in percent, t is tortuosity (usually taken as
2 to 3), en c! S is specific surface area in cm2/cm3 of grains in a rock.
The interdependence of ,u and ~ is not clearly understood. The value
of s is obviously strongly affected by grain size, so that ,u for a coarse-
grained sandstone can be an order of magnitude higher than for a fine-
grained sandstone, although both have the same ˘.~4 The Kozeny for-
mula has limited use because s and t are difficult to estimate.
Absorption of fluids in rocks depends on the connected, effective
(i.e., permeable) porosity. Connected pores in building stones can be
visualized as a system of capillary passages in which the surface tension
of water becomes important. The surface tension by of a fluid in a
capillary crack of width c] is given by:
A= C3h,
(4)
where C is a constant and h is the height of rise of the fluid. For a
given fluid, "y and C would be fixed; therefore, the smaller the crack
width c] the greater the rise h in a capillary passage. Crack widths of
5 ,um have been measured in building stones; one epoxy that was
injected into the pores of deteriorated stones to try to seal them has
itself been found to contain crack widths of 2 to 10 ,um. Lewin discusses
capillary flow in detail in these proceedings. He points out that the
OCR for page 71
Physic~lPropertiesof Building Stone 71
volume of flow is proportional to the radius of the capillary to the
fourth power. Saline water has been observed to rise 4 to 10 m in
capillaries in sandstone and other masonry materials.~5
THERMAL PROPERTIES
The effects of diurnal and seasonal heating and cooling on deterioration
of building and monument stones can be significant on a microscopic
scale. These effects involve conduction of heat by solids and induced
thermal stresses. Some of the measurements that have been made of
thermal stresses and their effects on rock in place are described below.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal stresses resulting from changes in the temperature of ambient
air can be large enough to produce microfractures in and between the
mineral grains of a rock. This can happen even in temperate climates
because of anisotropy and differences in the thermal expansions of the
minerals. An important feature is that the fracturing is irreversible,
and thereafter the permeability will be greater and will allow greater
penetration of water.
Ide found that although the volume of several common rocks did
not increase perceptibly upon heating, microfractures formed by dif-
ferential expansion of mineral grains, resulting in a very marked and
irreversible decrease in the elastic modulus.~6 For example, a 25-fold
reduction, from 0.8 to 0.03 M bar, in the elastic modulus, E, of a granite
resulted from heating to 500° C (see Figure 4; note that E varies as
velocity squared). Ide found that only a 2 percent reduction in the
modulus resulted from heating to 100° c.~6 Griggs found no spelling
or extension of cracks in photomicrographs after heating and cooling
a granite block between 32° C and 142° C for about 20,000 cycles.~7
However, Ide's result at 100° C indicates that some microfractures
would have formed, although they would have been undetectable at
the magnification Griggs used. Hudec shows that water in the pores
weakens rock, making thermal stresses more effective.5 A property
like elasticity could be used to reveal the extent of damage from ther-
mal cracking. Modem ultrasonic, acoustic, or mechanical velocity-
logging devices can be used to measure the expected decrease in elas-
ticity and could be adapted to measure the weathering of monument
stones.
Hooker and Duvall, in a quarry at Mount Airy, N.C., measured a
70-bar increase in stress in granodiorite resulting from a 25° C tem-
OCR for page 72
72
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
4
3
2
1
O ~
\
IN
GRANITE
0 100 200 300 400 500
TEMPERATUR E ( C)
FIGURE 4 Irreversible change in longitudinal sonic velocity
(a measure of the elastic modulus E) of a Qliincy granite sample
on heating to 270° C and then to 500° C ride.
perature change between February and August (see Figure 51.~8 The
thermal stress equation is:
if= 0`E(Ti —To)/~1 - v),
(5)
where or is stress in kilobars; ax is coefficient of expansion in reciprocal
degrees Celsius; E is elastic modulus in kb; To and To are final and
initial temperatures in degrees C; and v is Poisson's ratio, which can
be taken as about 0.25. Stress change per degree temperature rise was
measured at 3.1 bars per degree Celsius {Figure 5) and was calculated
OCR for page 76
76
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
strength of rock, but their relations to rock decay are probably min-
imal.
Elasticity
The ratio of stress to strain is Young's modulus of elasticity, E; it is
usually accepted as constant. Most rocks are brittle and behave elas-
tically to an elastic limit, which is usually near the stress at which
the rock fails. As noted under Thermal Expansion {above), microcrack-
ing changes the elasticity of a rock, so changes in elasticity may be
used to detect increased porosity, permeability, and susceptibility to
deterioration.
Compressive Strength
Walsh discusses compressive strength in detail in these proceedings,
but a brief review may be in order. The unconfined, or uniaxial, strength
of rock in compression is the maximum stress attained before the rock
fails, usually by brittle rupture at strains of a few percent. Generally,
igneous rocks, quartzite, and some state are strong rocks; schist and
marble are moderately strong; and the porous sedimentary rocks are
weak. Limestone and rock salt, under respective confining pressures
of 1 kb and 0.2 kb or higher, will deform plastically under differential
stress above the elastic limit; they can deform by creep to 20 to 30
percent before large cracks form. The uniaxial strengths of porous
sandstones, limestones, and shales depend on porosity; the strength
of these rocks increases about threefold as porosity decreases from 35
to 1 percent. These rocks also show a small increase in strength as
grain size decreases. In a feldspathic sandstone cemented by calcite,
an increase in quartz content from 1 to 60 percent increases strength
fourfold. The effect of water, especially if under pressure, is to weaken
rocks; this effect and those of confining pressure and other physical
conditions on graywacke and other rocks were reviewed by Robert-
son.20
Modulus of Rupture
The modulus of rupture of rock is measured by a simple bending test
on an unconfined sample. It is approximately equal to the tensile
strength, in that the sample fails by tension in the extended elements
of the beam. Tests strictly of tension in rocks are quite difficult to do
OCR for page 77
Physical Properties of Building Stone
properly. As can be seen~in Table 1, the modulus of rupture is one-
third to one-tenth of the compressive strength. The modulus as a test
of tensile strength is useful in applications involving failure in tension
of building and monument stones because of thermal or mechanical
microfracturing.
77
Fnability
A rock or mineral is said to be friable if it crumbles naturally or is
easily broken. Examples of friable rocks are soft or weakly cemented
sandstones and shales. The friability of rocks can be considered a gra-
dational mechanical property, which is perhaps best measured by an
abrasion-hardness test. Such tests use a grinding powder and a lap or
wheel applied to the specimen under a standard load. Relative values
from such tests could be useful in detecting and monitoring the de-
terioration of building stones. No values of abrasion hardness are given
in Table 1 because the values range widely among rocks and overlap
from one rock to another. Friability depends on the strength of the
weakest of the major mineral constituents and on the strength of the
bonding between the mineral grains. Friability is low in dense, igneous
rocks and high in porous, sedimentary rocks; it depends on the char-
acter of the intergranular bonds, from the weak bonds of a poor cement
to the strong ionic bonds of silica tetrahedra.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Color
The colors and patterns of monument, facade, and other building stones
are important for artistic reasons. However, aside from changes that
indicate the extent of weathering, color is not important in stone
deterioration.
Transmittance and Reflectance
Some stones like marble, travertine, and chalcedony are selected as
facade stones for their transmission and reflection of light, because of
their interesting layered patterns and colors, through thin slabs and
from polished surfaces. Light reflected from mineral cleavage, twin-
ning, or grain surfaces, as in calcite, labradorite, and mica, may indicate
OCR for page 78
78
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
locations of cracks, which would enhance permeability and lead to
decay.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
The resistivity and dielectric strength of stones are not affected directly
by decay, but both properties are influenced strongly by the pemlea-
bility and saline-water content of the pores in the stones. Measure-
ments of electncal properties could be used to estimate permeability
and approximate water content. Brace found that the resistivity of a
wide range of crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks decreased as
107
1o6
105
04
103
en
In
LL
cr
1o2
10
1
~ ,
. ~S
^~ ':
_ 4~
\
~~ -
Tap Water
50Q-m
\
Salt
Solution
0.3Q-m
0.1 1 10 100
POROSITY (percent)
FIGURE 7 Decrease in resistivity of many crystalline
igneous and metamorphic rocks with increase in porosity
to about 5 percent, for saltwater and tap water saturating
the samples under 4 k bar confining pressure {Bracel.2i
OCR for page 79
Physical Properties of Building Stone
79
water content increased (see Figure 71.2i Resistivities decreased from
106 ohm-m at ~ = 0.1 percent to 102 ohm-m at ~ = 5 percent in
samples saturated with saline water; resistivities were one-tenth as
high with tap water. If Brace's results were extrapolated to the\higher
porosities (and corresponding water content) of sandstones, the resis-
tivity would be about 1 ohm-m at ~ = 40 percent. Thus, resistance
decreases rapidly as porosity and water content increase. Good resis-
tivity measurements are easy to make, using four-probe geophysical
techniques, and con detect small changes in ~ and water salinity and
saturation.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
The magnetic-susceptibility and remanant magnetism of rocks are
closely tied to the magnetite content. However, magnetite is a minor
constituent of rocks and without importance to decay processes in
stones.
BUILDING AND MONUMENT STONES
WinMer reviewed the specifications for stones of the American Society
for Testing and Materials.1 The ASTM tests are guidelines to proper
selection of stone for specific uses, although they need to be brought
up to date. In addition, the comprehensive works of Bowles2 and Barton7
provide very useful descriptions of the properties of building and mon-
ument stones and of criteria for selection. The tests and descriptions
of criteria for selection inherently provide information on susceptibil-
ity to deterioration, but the physical and chemical mechanisms of
deterioration need thorough study. Where structures and monuments
have already deteriorated, the physical properties of their stones will
need study in properly diagnosing and solving problems.
Physical properties are measured on small specimens of stones, but
minor and subtle features of rock in place con be of overriding im-
portance. Merrill reported on a new firm that started up an abandoned
but formerly successful quarry and lost nearly $1 million because the
new operators failed to observe imperceptible defects in the rock in
the new quarrying zone.3 He said that, as a consultant, if he were
restricted to either field examinations or laboratory tests, he unhesi-
tatingly declares that, with good natural outcrops or quarry openings
of Tong standing, he would choose the field examination, no matter
how elaborate the other tests might be. At the time of writing, he was
probably correct, but today, presumably, careful sampling and com-
plete testing of physical properties can detect small but critical differ-
OCR for page 80
80
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
ences in the characteristics of building stones and thus reinforce the
field examinations.
Igneous Rocks
Granite
In geologic usage the name "granite" refers to rocks of various origins,
a range including felsic igneous and metamorphic rocks that vary con-
siderably in mineral composition. These rocks usually are dense and
range in grain size from fine and equigranular, through medium and
equigranular or porphyritic, to coarsely granular. Porosity and perme-
ability are usually low, and the granite has high resistance to weath-
ering and corrosion unless it is highly jointed, microfractured, or fol-
iated.
Granites range in jointing from those having no definite rift, like
the granites at Charlotte, North Carolina, and VinaThaven, Maine,
which can occur in blocks 90 m by 6 m by 3 m (300 ft by 20 ft by 10
ft), to a Wisconsin granite having joints at 20 cm t8 in.) spacing, too
close for a building stone. Gneissic granite is strong perpendicular to
its foliation but can be split into stabs for curbing an paving stones.
Incipient joints, which are actually planes of microfracturing, occur in
the granite. of Essex County, New York; although the granite is ac-
ceptable for buildings, the incipient joints would open up on prolonged
exposure and deface a monument. Calcareous layers in mica schists
continue into contiguous massive granite gneisses in Vermont and
Maryland and in time would be sources of deterioration. Gabbro bodies
are seldom quarried in the United States because the rock is hard and
difficult to work.
Rhyolite and Andesite
Rhyolite and andesite are volcanic rocks that occur as massive rock
and as porous or welded tuff. The porous tuff is usually poorly con-
solidated, has bedding partings in places, and has a density less than
2 g/cm3. It is subject to permeation by rainwater but drains well and.
has the virtues of easy workability and good standing strength; the
effects of frost can be severe. The welded tuff is very hard and difficult
to work. Indurated rhyolite and andesite do not take a polish and are
seldom used for buildings in the United States. They have been used
in the past in Europe, however, because of their easy workability.
OCR for page 81
Physical Properties of Building Stone
Basalt
81
The dense varieties of basalt are relatively impervious to water, but
they are hard and lack a rift. Columnar jointing is found in certain
basalt flows, and the columns have been used in a few buildings. Basalt
in massive flows is dark and does not take a polish, so it has little
aesthetic appeal. Jointed basalt will have crack permeability, but ves-
icular basalt may not be permeable owing to isolation of vesicles.
Metamorphic Rocks
Quartzite
The strong, dense quartzites are usually cemented by silica, are fine
"rained, and are almost impervious to moisture. The Dakota quartzite
is a good example. It takes a fine polish, although only after consid-
erable grinding; it is unique in that it has almost perfect rift and grain
cleavages. These properties make the stone desirable for ornamental
as well as building uses. Silica-cemented, fine-grained quartzites do
not deteriorate, but if shaTey layers or close jointing occur, they will
constitute planes of weakness and high permeability.
Marble
Both calcitic and dolomitic marble are massive rocks but commonly
have moderate intrinsic permeability. ~ fact, moderate friability some-
omes develops after only a few years of weathering, especially in coarse-
grained marble. Tremolite laths, which are ubiquitous in marble, weather
out once leave pocks. Marble occurs in a variety of colors and polishes
well; however, it is usually jointed and fairly pe~eable and therefore
can be subject to rapid chemical decay. Blasting and rough mechanical
Treatment create microcracks easily in marble and are avoided in good
quarrying practice.
State
The obvious cleavage of fissile state provides permeability for water
penetration. Good roofing state is fine "rained, smooth, and tough. The
quarried slabs have good bonding and Tow permeability across the
unbroken cleavage and are quite resistant to deterioration.
OCR for page 82
82
Sedimentary Rocks
Sandstone
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
The type of intergranular cement determines the physical character-
istics-of sandstones. There are four common cements—silica, limonite,
calcite, and clay minerals. Silica-cemented sandstone, even though
porous, may resemble a quartzite in its high hardness, strength, and
resistance to decay. Sandstone cemented by limonite is so* to work;
in a fairly dry climate it will season to a harder, stronger rock, resistant
to weathering and chemical disintegration. CaTcitic cement is suscep-
tible to the same kinds of chemical decay that affect limestone, and
sandstone containing it may be greatly weakened. Clayey cement ab-
sorbs water, and sandstone containing it is easily broken, either by
freezing or because clay minerals form poor intergranular bonds.
The reddish-brown, porous sandstone from Seneca, Maryland, used
in the Smithsonian building in Washington, D.C., is limonite-ce-
mented and has stood up reasonably well. The sandstone in Potsdam,
New York, has both limonite and silica cement, and so it is soft to
work and also holds up against deterioration. The Berea, Ohio, grit is
fairly porous and easily worked; it has very little cement, probably
silica. The material is cohesive, but slightly friable, and is used for
grindstones because the grit contains none of the other cements that
would glaze the surface and stop the cutting action.
Inhomogeneities resulting from interbedding are important to ob-
serve in checking sandstone formations for use as building stone. Ad-
jacent layers may differ considerably in type of cement or plagioclase
and mica content, or shale beds may be intercalated; if so, the sand-
stone, whether soft or hard, may be unusable for buildings. Also, the
bedding may be too thin for usable blocks. Such variation can be very
subtle, and close observation is needed. Because the porosity of com-
mercial sandstone for building use ranges from 2 to 15 percept, 7 the
permeability will be fairly high and the stone will stand up to decay
only if interbedded layers are not permeable. Quarrying of sandstone
is often stopped in winter because water deep inside fresh blocks would
freeze and split them, and freezing of near-surface water could cause
spelling.
OCR for page 83
Physical Properties of Building Stone
Limestone
83
The relatively easy workability of limestone makes it a favored stone
for construction and monuments. However, almost all limestones,
even those of low porosity, have relatively high intrinsic and micro-
crack and bedding permeability. Thus they are susceptible to weath-
ering by permeating water and gases and especially by the well-known
process involving conversion of sulfur dioxide to gypsum. Bedford,
Indiana, limestone is soft but moderately strong; it has no rift and can
be worked in any direction, so it is a much-used building stone. Dense
colitic limestones are commonly varicolored, compact, and easily po-
lished, so they are used as veneer or ornamental stone. Normal lime-
stone is usually impure, containing quartz, mica, clay, other silicate
minerals, and carbon; shaTey layers along the bedding can form partings
as a result of weathering. In fossiliferous limestone in Kansas, the space
around the fossils is not filled, and cellular breakage occurs. The soft
limestone at Caen, France, is easily carved and, being moderately strong,
is widely used for buildings in Europe. However, it deteriorates rapidly
in the more severe U.S. climate because of its relatively high pe~n~e-
ability.
Shale
Shale is inherently friable in that it is not lithified well enough to
resist abrasion. Shale has very low intrinsic permeability because of
its clay mineral content, but some shales have pronounced bedding
planes and jointing, which provide permeable channels if the shale is
under very low confining pressure. Invasion of shale by water often
results in almost complete disintegration; adobe and mud for walls,
which react to water by disintegration, are essentially shalelike in
mineral composition.
Soapstone, Travertine, and Serpent~te
Soapstone, travertine, and serpentinite are relatively soft and take a
good polish; they are used for omaments, statuary, or facades. They
rarely occur in large blocks. Travertine usually is soft just after quar-
rying and becomes hard on standing; of course, it is porous and subject
to the deterioration characteristic of such calcitic stones. Verde antique
is ornamental serpentinite and usually consists of white calcite veins
running through the variegated green serpentine. It is used as a veneer
stone. The calcite, of course, can be corroded by atmospheric moisture
and gases.
OCR for page 84
84
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDINGS
Knowledge of physical properties can be useful both for initial selection
and for diagnosis of the deterioration processes of building stones. We
need not only laboratory measurements of physical properties, but also
observations on the rock in place. For example, laboratory measure-
ment of the strength of rock is not an adequate index of the stability
of stone under weathering or other decay processes. Knowledge of lack
of homogeneity in macroscopic to microscopic features needs to be
obtained by quarry-site inspection and by microscopic observations of
petrographic and textural discontinuities. Once identified, inhomo-
geneities can be tested in the laboratory on carefully selected samples;
there are many examples of such testing.) 5 7 ~ 9 i0 ii
In stone to be used for buildings or monuments, such physical prop-
erties as rift (cleavage parallel to foliation or bedding) and grain (cleav-
age perpendicular to rift) should be identified. As has been repeatedly
mentioned above, veins, layers, or cements of calcite, clay, talc, mica,
or shale, whether thick or thin, can be expected to weather out or be
corroded and, together with bedding and cross joints, can increase
permeability. Pore size and shape in stone can vary from one part of
a quarry to another, even within short distances. Such variation can
influence the effective porosity or pem~eabflity, and the pem~eabflity
may vary along and across bedding or foliation in a single quarry. Thus,
induration, foliation, microfracturing, variation in mineral composi-
tion among or within layers, and jointing at small to large intervals
in rock in place can be more significant than laboratory tests in de-
termining the susceptibility of building and monument stones to de-
terioration. These characteristics also are important in diagnosing de-
terioration processes affecting stones in use.
Quarrying methods can affect the durability of stones. Blasting can
create cracks that become permeable channels for water. The same
effect can be produced by imperfect splitting along rift and grain. It
can also result from zones of small-scare microfracturing, which can
form when existing tectonic stresses are concentrated by the quarrying
operation until they exceed the strength of the rock and it fails.
For those analyzing deterioration processes in particular stones, geo-
physical techniques could provide useful measurements of the physical
condition to supplement laboratory tests of physical properties. Geo-
physical exploration techniques based on electrical resistivity and
acoustic velocity can probably be helpful in diagnosing stones undergo-
ing corrosion or decay. Resistivity varies with water content and sa-
linity and so would be sensitive to increases in permeability and po-
OCR for page 85
Physical Properties of Building Stone
85
rosity resulting from dissolution or microfracturing. Ultrasonic-wave-
velocity methods can be used on a small scale (to 10 cm) to detect
spelling or microfracturing from thermal or other stresses in the stones,
but acoustic-wave-velocity measurements could be used for deeper
penetration To 100 m). Hudec found that water saturation decreased
velocity in "sound" rocks and increased velocity in "unsound" rocks
(which are more susceptible to weathering),S so saturation must be
accounted for in interpreting velocity studies.
In general, to obtain a fuller explanation of each deterioration process
in building stone, collaboration will be needed among the following
people: the preservationist, who knows where these processes take
place, what stones to study because of their architectural and historic
significance, and what remedies have been tried; the geologist, who
knows the origin and mineral content of the stone and its probable
geologic inhomogeneities; the specialist in rock mechanics, who knows
the measurement and the significance of physical properties; the geo-
physicist, who knows exploration techniques and their application to
characterizing the extent of stone decay; and the geochemist, who
understands the chemistry of weathering and knows what analytical
techniques can be used to explain the detenoration process. With fuller
explanation will come knowledge of what physical and chemical prop-
erties to measure and how to measure them, leading to more satisfac-
tory decisions on remedial measures.
REFERENCES
1. Winkler, E.M., 1973, Stone: Properties, Durability ill Man's Environment, Sprin-
ger-Verlag, New York.
2. Bowles, O., 1934, The Stone Industries, McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. Memll, G.P., 1903, Stones for Building and Decoration, John Wiley, New York.
4. Schaffer, R.J., 1932, The Weathering of Natural Building Stones, Harrison and
Sons, London.
5. Winkler, E.M., ea., 1978, Decay and preservation of stone, Geol. Soc. Amer., Eng.
Geol. Case Histories No. 11, 104.
6. Moen, W.S., 1967, Building stone of Washington, Washington Div. Mines & Geol.
Bull. 55.
7. Barton, W.R., 1968, Dimension Stone, U.S. Burl Mines Infor. Circ. 8391.
8. Blair, B.E., 1955, 1956, Physical Properties of Mine Rock, Parts III, IV, U.S. Burl
Mines Rep. Inv. 5130 and 5244.
9. Blair, B.E., 1956, Physical Properties of Mine Rock, Part IV, U.S. Burl Mines Rep.
Inv. 5244.
10. Clark, S.P., Jr., 1966, Handbook of Physical Constants, Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 97.
11. Windes, S.L., 1950, Physical Properties of Mine Rock, Part II, U.S. Burl Mines
Rep. Inv. 4727.
OCR for page 86
86
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC STONE BUILDLINGS
12. Brace, W.F., 1980, Permeability of crystalline and argillaceous rocks, Islet. I. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. v. 17, no. 5, p. 241-252.
13. Morrow, C., Lochner, D., Moore, D., and Byerlee, J.D., 1981, Permeability of
granite in a temperature gradient {abstract), EOS, v. 61, no. 52, p. 1238.
14. Blatt, H., Middleton, G., and Murray, D., 1980, Origin of Sedimentary Rocks,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
15. Torraca, G., 1976, Brick, adobe, stone, end architecturalceramics: Deterioration
processes and conservation practices, in Proc. North Amer. Int. Reg. Conference, 1972,
Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices, S. Timmons, ea., Smithsonian
Inst. Press, Washington., D.C., pp. 143-165.
16. Ide, J.M., 1937, The velocity of sound in rocks and glasses as a function of tem-
perature, I. Geol., v. 45, no. 7, pp. 689-716.
17. Griggs, D.T., 1936, The factor of fatigue in rock exfoliation, four. Geol., v. 44, pp.
78~796.
18. Hooker, V.E., and Duvall, W.I., 1971, In Situ Rock Temperature: Stress Investi-
gatior~s in Rock Quarries, U.S. Burl Mines Rep. Inv. 7589.
19. Robertson, E.C., 1979, Thermal Conductivities of Rocks, U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 79-356.
20. Robertson, E.C, 1972, Strength of metamorphosed graywacke and other rocks,
in The Nature of the Solid Earth, E.C. Robertson, ea., McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 631-
659.
21. Brace, W.F., 1971, Resistivity of saturated crustal rocks to 40 km based on lab-
oratory measurements, in The Structure arid Physical Properties of the Earth's Crust,
J.G. Heacock, ea., American Geophysical Union Monograph 14, p. 24~255.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
building stones
