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Index
A
Accelerated Schools Project, 235-237
Access, 117-118
college enrollment, 150
minority enrollment trends, 158, 226
preschool enrollment, 148
quality schools, 134
secondary school enrollment, 148-150
trends, 148
Accountability
assessment-based, 171, 188-189, 191-192
average test score assessment, 213-214, 221
of school administration, 133-134
in school-based management, 76, 100-101
of teachers, 131-133, 137
test design and analysis for, 176-178
unmeasured outcomes and, 176
value-added assessment, 202
Active learning, 235
Adaptability, 234-235
Advanced Placement tests, 16
Algebra, 16
Assessment of schools
classroom-specific, 24
criteria for performance indicators, 197-198
cross-school comparison, 18, 207-210
dependent/independent variables, 23-25
examples of school-based management, 79-93
gain indicator, 216-218
implementing performance-based system, 48-49
implications of flawed practice, 218-219
inadequacies in, 21-22
management factors, 106-108
measures for, 148
reform outcomes, 21
standards for, 7-8, 12
for systemic reform, 5, 24-25
techniques, 199
See also School performance;
Value-added assessment
Assessment of students
adjustment of test scores, 179-180
as basis for educational reform, 173-174
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conceptual and technical development, 172-174
for educator accountability, 171-172, 191-192
evaluation of system for, 190-191
improving test design for, 186-189
level indicators, 199
limitations, 103-104, 172, 178-180
negative effects on teaching, 184-186
role of achievement tests, 174-176
system design, 189-190
in systemic school reform, 5
test design and analysis, 176-178
thinking skills, 176
At-risk students
accelerated schools for, 235-237
cost-benefit analysis, 229-233
definition and characteristics of, 225-226
patterns of poverty, 227
preschool interventions for, 231-232
resource allocation for, 228-229
significance of, 226
social outcomes, 227-228
trends, 227
B
Board certification for teachers, 255
Britain
access to education, 117-118
examination system, 128-129, 137
secondary school admissions, 134-135
spending on education, 121-122
student achievement in, 112-116
student body diversity, 116-117
teacher accountability, 137
teaching practice, 122-125
teaching profession, 118-121
C
Class size
international comparison, 121
resource efficiency and, 6-7
spending to decrease, 151
student performance and, 22, 38
Clinton administration, 9-14
College(s)
admission standards for teachers, 119
admissions criteria, 129, 133
attainment trends, 1, 2-3
employment outcomes related to, 55-73
enrollment trends, 150
student loans, 9-11
Cost-benefit analysis, 6, 8, 41
dropout prevention, 229-231
interventions with at-risk populations, 232-233
preschool programs, 231-232
Creaming, 185-186, 219, 220
Criminal behavior, 154
prospects for at-risk students, 228
school trends, 158-160
Curriculum design
depth of content, 16
in performance-based incentive systems, 49
in school-based management, 77
student capacity to learn, 15-16
D
Dade County, Florida, 82-90
Dropout rate, 148-150, 153, 226
economic outcomes, 230-231
high school interventions, 229-231
preschool intervention, 231-232
Drugs in schools, 159-160
E
Economic analysis
as basis for reform effort, 29-30
of educational issues, 142-143
of human capital, 1-2
implications of at-risk student populations, 227-228
lack of, in reform effort, 8
measures for school assessment, 23
outcomes for high-school dropouts, 230-231
potential for crisis in school system, 35
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research support for systemic reform, 5-6, 8
school governance models, 75-76
See also Investment in education
Educational attainment
of at-risk students, 226, 227
benefits of, 31
earnings correlated with, 31, 32, 53
macroeconomic effects, 32-33
market trends vs., as employment factor, 62-73
of parents, and participation in educational system, 101
preschool education and, 231-232
prospects for at-risk students, 227-228
relative wage correlations, 55-62
of teachers, student performance and, 22-23
trends, 1, 2-3, 53-54, 73, 150
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 3, 4, 6, 172-173
academic standards, 13-14, 20
reauthorization, 12-14, 18-19
state autonomy, 19
systemic school reform and, 5
Title I, 13-14, 173
Employment and income
career decisions of teachers, 242-250
cohort patterns, 57-58
educational attainment and, 31, 32, 53, 73
employer hiring behaviors, 133
employment opportunities for teachers, 247, 248
income trends, 161, 162
labor market shifts, 54, 153-154
occupational shifts related to educational attainments, 66-72
prospects for at-risk students, 227-228
prospects for high-school dropouts, 230-231
quantification of human capital investment, 2
relative wages related to educational attainments, trends in, 55-62
student preparation for labor market, 153-154
trends, 53-54
working mothers, 160
ESEA. See Elementary and Secondary Education Act
F
France, 141
access to education, 117-118
examination system, 128-129
repeating a grade in, 138, 139
secondary school admissions, 134
spending on education, 121-122
student achievement, 112-116
student body diversity, 116-117
student specialization, 139, 140
teaching practice, 122-125
teaching profession, 118-121
G
Gender issues, 58-59, 153
General Educational Development (GED) certificate, 150
Goal setting
adaptability in, 234-235
choice of specialization, 139-140
goal achievement and, 30, 135-137
for performance-based incentives, 103-104, 105
qualities of efficient organizations, 234
for systemic reform, 5
Goals 2000, 6
academic standards, 12, 20
criticism of, 3-4
goals of, 3, 12
rationale, 18-19
resource allocation, 14
systemic school reform and, 5
underlying assumptions of, 46-47
Grading on curve, 12, 130
H
Head Start, 148, 164, 166
Health care, school-based, 166
High school
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attainment trends, 1, 2-3
competitive admissions, 134
enrollment trends, 148-150
international comparison, 111, 141-142
interventions with at-risk students, 229-231
occupational education and training, 11-12
teacher compensation, 119
teacher training, 119, 121
I
Improving America's Schools Act, 12-14
Information management
data needs for value-added assessment, 204-205, 206-207, 210-211, 220-221
needs of efficient organizations, 234
for school-based management, 106
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievements, findings of, 112-116
International comparisons
access to quality education, 134
economic competition, 32-33
educational spending, 121-122
examination systems, 128-129
extent of student performance differences, 111, 112-116
external assessment, 133-134
possible causes of student performance differences, 116-125
redoublement/repeating a grade, 137-139
secondary school admissions, 134-135
significant features of European practice, 141-143
standard setting for external exams, 135-137
student assessment, 112
student engagement, 124-125
student performance, 35-36
student time on task, 122-124
teaching environment, 131-133
teaching profession, 118-121
See also Britain: France;
Netherlands
Investment in education
benefits for individual, 31
community economic status and, 162-163
cost-benefit analysis, 6
distribution of spending, 121-122, 151
expenditures per pupil, 23, 33, 35, 121, 151, 162-163
international comparison, 121
an investment in human capital, 1-2
macroeconomic considerations, 32
policymaking environment, 4
preventive interventions with at-risk students, 229-233
scope of economic analysis, 31
significance of at-risk population, 226
social rationale, 31, 151-154
trends, 30, 33-40, 150-151
Investment in human capital
vs. investment in tangible assets, 2
J
Jones, Adele, 132
L
Language issues, 158
Level indicators, 199, 218-219
M
Minimum competency testing, 173
Monroe County, Florida, 90-92
Motivation to learn
peer group norms, 130-131
standards of external exams and, 135-137
teacher qualities related to, 17
threat of repeating a grade, 138-139
N
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 255
National Education Goals. See Goals 2000
National Teacher's Examination (NTE), 245-246, 249
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Netherlands, 141-142
access to education, 117-118
examination system, 128-129, 137
repeating a grade in, 138-139
secondary school admissions, 134
spending on education, 121-122
student achievement, 112-116
student body diversity, 116-117
student specialization, 139-140
teaching practice, 122-125
teaching profession, 118-121
NTE. See National Teachers' Examination
O
Occupational education and training, 11-12
P
Panel on the Economics of Education Reform (PEER), 4, 6, 8, 171
Parents and families of students
characteristics of at-risk students, 226-227
community-family partnerships, 163-164
ethnic differences, 158
influence on child outcomes, 154-155, 157
participation in educational system, 99-102
school-based training programs for, 166
school-family partnerships, 164
single parent families, 161-162
trends related to school performance, 160-162
in value-added assessment model, 200-201
working mothers, 160
PEER. See Panel on the Economics of Education Reform
Performance-based incentives, 7, 41-43
basic features, 42-43
with disadvantaged students, 46
distortion problems, 104
in efficient organizations, 234
evaluation of effectiveness, 44, 45
goal-setting, 103-104, 105
implementation, 44-45, 47-50
management structure for, 48-49
measurement problems, 103-104
merit pay systems, 252
performance standards for, 47, 103
potential problems of, 103-105
quality of assessment data for, 219
rationale, 41, 46, 105
research support for, 48
school-based management with, 93, 98, 103, 105-106
for teacher licensing, 252-253, 254-255, 256
Performance standards
achievement related to difficulty of, 135-137
for assessment of schools, 7-8, 12
conceptual and technical development, 173
criteria for, as assessment indicators, 197-198
criterion-referenced/norm-referenced, 173
current conceptualization, 174
decentralized decision-making for, 126
equality in implementation, 20
in ESEA, 13-14, 20
federal guidelines, 20
in Goals 2000, 12, 20
high-quality examples, 20
incentives to lower, 131-132
performance-based incentives and, 47, 103
political environment, 135
prospects for, as assessment indicators, 188-189
school administrator behaviors, 133-134
signaling effects, 125-129
state and local autonomy, 7-8, 14-15, 19, 20
for systemic reform, 20
for teacher training, 253
for Title I students, 13-14, 173
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 92
Policymaking
assessment-based, 173
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attracting skilled teachers, 250-256
based on flawed indicators, 218-219
Clinton administration, 9-14
economic considerations, 4
implementation through incentive, 7-8
political environment of standard setting, 135
value-added assessment, 204
Praxis I/II, 246
Preschool enrollment, 148, 155, 166
long-term benefits, 231-232
Primary school
international comparison of student performance, 111, 116
teacher compensation, 120
Private-public partnerships
community-family, 163-164
effectiveness, 165-166
objectives, 147
in performance-based incentive systems, 49
prospects, 166
rationale, 154-157
school-community, 164-165
school-family, 164
tradition, 147
trends, 147
Production function. See School performance
Productivity
educational factors in, 32-33
implications of at-risk student populations, 227-228
international comparison, 32
Property rights, 1
Q
Quality of education
access, 134
economic outcomes and, 32-33
R
Race/ethnicity
academic performance, 36-37, 150, 153
at-risk populations, 226-227
diversity of student body as performance factor, 116-117
dropout rate, 150, 153, 226
economic trends, 161
education majors, 247
English as second language, 158
income related to educational attainment, 58-59
labor market correlations, 54
minority enrollment trends, 158, 226
parenting styles, 158
peer group influences on academic performance, 130
Reform efforts
assessment-based accountability as basis for, 173-174
assessment systems for, 171-172
of Clinton administration, 9-14
community-family partnerships for, 163-164
community involvement, rationale for, 154-157
economic analysis for, 8, 29-30
effects on educational outcomes, 21
experimental research for, 44
goal setting, 5
incentive-based, 7-8, 41-43
obstacles to, 18, 45-46
political context, 142
prospects, 49-50, 142
recent history, 3-4, 29
school-based management, 76-79
school-community partnerships for, 164-165
school-family partnerships for, 164
significance of European practice, 141-143
spending reform for, 50
spending trends, 151
See also Systemic school reform
Repeating a grade, 137-139
Resource allocation and use
adaptability, 234-235
for at-risk populations, 228-229
class size and, 6-7
current inefficiency, 30, 40-41
economic analysis of schools, 6
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educational spending trends, 150-151
for implementing school-based management, 78, 81
meaning of efficiency in, 41
measurement techniques, 23
motivation for efficiency, 39
non-instructional salary expenditures, 35, 121-122
qualities of efficient organizations, 233-235
recommendations for reform, 50
school performance and, 23-24
for special needs students, 4-5
state and local decision-making, 14, 15
for systemic reform, 5
use of teacher's time in school-based management, 102
S
SATs
performance trends, 150
scores of education majors, 244
School administration
accountability, 133-134
adaptability, 234-235
autonomy, 8
cost of, 35
limitations of decentralized decision-making, 98-103
local political environment, 107
obstacles to assessment, 106-108
parental involvement, 99-102
participatory decision-making, 17, 44-45
performance-based contracts for teachers, 7
performance-based incentives for improving, 7
qualities of efficient organizations, 233-235
rationale for district-level governance, 75
student performance linkage, 107
See also School-based management
School-based management
accountability in, 100-101
authority structure, 77-78, 80-81
evaluation criteria, 93, 106-107
examples of implementation, 79-80
expertise of participants in, 99-100
information needs, 106
objectives, 79, 81
parental participation, 99-102
participants in decision-making, 99
performance-based incentives in, 93, 98, 103, 105-106
rationale for, 75-76, 98-103
research needs, 93, 97-98, 106-108
resources for implementation, 78, 81
socioeconomic setting, 100-102, 107
student outcomes, 80, 81-93, 98, 102, 103
teacher autonomy in, 99
teacher participation in, 99, 100
School choice
at-risk students and, 237
effects of flawed assessment data, 218-219
as incentive for student performance, 7
student performance and, 134-135
School performance
class size and, 6-7, 22
community inputs, trends in, 162-163
community outcomes affected by, 157
economic analysis, 142-143
family inputs, trends in, 160-162
incentives for, 7, 40
measurement, 7, 21-25
outcome-based incentives for, 41-43
public knowledge, 133-134
social trends related to, 157-160
student outcomes affected by, 155
teacher training and, 7
trends, 148-150, 157-158
See also Assessment of schools;
Value-added assessment
School-to-Work Act, 11-12
Single-parent families, 161-162, 227
Sociocultural factors
commitment to education, 111-112
discouragement of student performance, 112
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public knowledge of school performance, 133-134
threat of repeating a grade, 138-139
Socioeconomic factors in analysis of standardized test performance, 177
at-risk populations, 226, 227
in child outcomes, 154-157
community trends, 162-163
minority student performance, 158
parent participation in educational system, 100-102
rationale for investing in education, 31
in school-based management outcomes, 100-102, 107
in student performance, 23-24, 36-37, 153-154, 226
students in poverty, 158, 227
Special needs students expenditures, 23
in performance-based incentive systems, 46, 49
resource allocation, 4-5
See also At-risk students
Specialization, student, 139-140
Standardized testing
achievement related to difficulty of, 135-137
adjustment of test scores, 179-180
aggregate/average scores, limitations of, 199, 213-218, 221
appropriate use of, for assessment, 189-193
assessment goals, 174-176
conceptual and technical development, 172-174
control of test-taking pool, 185-186, 219
corruptibility, 180, 198
curriculum-based, 126
degradation of instruction as result of, 184-186
design and analytical methods, 176-178
improving design and administration of, 186-189
inflation of scores, 181-184, 186-187
as instrument of accountability, 171-172
limitations, 178-180
as measure of school performance, 23-24, 199
prospects for external exams, 142
racial/ethnic differences, 36-37
signaling effects, 125-126
socioeconomic variables, 177
student performance related to system of, 125-129
in systemic discouragement of student performance, 112
for teacher licensing, 245-246
teaching to the test, 173-174, 181-184, 185, 219
validity, 188-189, 197-198
variation across tests, 178-179
State and local decision-making
for implementing incentive-based system, 48-49
implementing value-added assessment, 220-221
rationale for centralized school governance, 75
regulatory relief, 14
resource use, 14
for setting performance standards, 7-8, 14-15, 19, 20
student performance outcomes and, 21
in systemic school reform, 13, 14-15, 18-19
Statewide Systemic Initiative, 19
Student aid, 9-11
Student performance
academic standards for Title I students, 13-14
academic standards of Goals 2000, 12
access to education and, 117-118
achievement related to external standards, 135-137
capacity to learn, 15-16
causes of international disparities, 116-125
class size and, 22, 38-39
classroom engagement and, 124-125
college acceptance criteria, 129
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determinants of, 39-40, 44, 107, 154-157
examination system as factor in, 125-129
extent of international disparities, 111, 112-116
external factors, 23-24
graded on curve, 130
incentives for, 7, 40, 43
inter-school comparison, 18
international comparison, 35-36
limitations of assessment, 103-104, 112, 172
peer group norms, 130-131
quality of teaching and, 17
racial/ethnic differences, 36-37, 158
in school-based management systems, 80, 81-93, 98, 102
school choice and, 134-135
school management linkage, 107
school reform and, 21
school spending and, 35, 37, 38-40
sociocultural factors, 111-112
specialization as factor in, 140
spending trends targeted to, 151
student body diversity and, 116-117
systemic pressures for discouragement of, 112
teacher accountability, 131-133
teacher incentives based on, 41-43, 121
teacher training and, 22-23, 38-39
time on task and, 122-124
trends, 35, 150
value-added assessment model, 200-201
See also Assessment of students
Student-teacher ratio. See Class size
Systemic school reform
assessment techniques for, 24-25
basic concepts, 4-5, 14-15
conditions for success, 19-20
implementation, 15, 19
policymaking environment, 6
program coordination for, 13
rationale, 5, 18-19
research base for, 5-6, 15-18
state and local autonomy, 14-15
T
Teach for America, 242-243
Teacher compensation/incentives
attracting skilled teachers, 250-256
career decisions of teachers, 242-250
competitiveness with other sectors, 34
employment duration and, 248-249
for fields with shortages, 254
flexibility in, 254
international comparison, 119-121
market demand for teachers, 247-248
master's degree in education and, 251-252
merit pay systems, 252
objectives, 241, 252
opportunities for research, 255
performance-based approaches, 7, 42-43, 48
for professional development, 255
salaries, 248, 253-255
student performance and, 121
teacher mobility and, 248
trends, 7, 33-34, 35, 151
Teacher-student ratios. See Class size
Teacher training
board certification, 255
enrollment trends, 243
international comparison, 119
licensing requirements, 242-243, 244-246
master's degrees, 22, 38, 251-252
minority enrollments, 247
performance-based licensing, 252-253, 254-255, 256
as predictor of teacher effectiveness, 242
quality of trainees, 247-248
student performance and, 22-23, 38
subject matter expertise, 119
for systemic school reform, 5, 17, 20
trends, 7
Teaching practice
accountability of teachers, 131-133, 137
active learning, 235
employment trends, 247
international comparisons, 122-125
measures of quality, 242-243
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negative effects of test-based accountability, 184-186
participation in administration, 17
in performance-based incentive systems, 104
predictors of effectiveness, 242
in school-based management system, 99, 100, 102
student engagement, 124-125
student performance and, 17, 22, 241
student time on task, 122-124
support for, 20
for systemic school reform, 17-18
teacher autonomy, 99
teaching to the test, 173-174, 181-184, 185, 219
work loads, international comparison, 120-121
Teen pregnancy/parenting, 154, 158, 162
school-based programs for, 166
Title I program, 13-14, 173
V
Value-added assessment, 7, 44, 172, 221-222
analytical method, 205-210
benchmark measures, 201
conditional mean format, 201-202
control variables, 210-211
current implementation, 220
data collection for, 204-205, 206-207, 210-211, 220-221
external school inputs, 203
heterogeneous slope models, 211-214
intrinsic performance indicators, 202-204, 206
predicted mean method, 201
public understanding of, 205
rationale, 172
reliability, 211
role of, 198
sample size, 204
school performance expectations and, 219-220
standard error, 211
statistical techniques, 199-205
total performance indicator, 201, 202
Type A indicator, 201
underlying assumptions, 209-210
vs. average test score assessment, 213-216
Violence in schools, 158-159
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