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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
May 28, 1 883-A pril 29, 1963
BY EUGENE M. LANDIS
WHENEVER HISTORIANS of science deal with the development
of physiology and medicine in the United States, they give
special significance to the period 1900-1950. At the turn of the
century, physiology was beginning its growth in this country as
a science in its own right and as a discipline useful to medicine
and surgery. The life and contributions of Carl John Wiggers
coincide almost precisely with this period. In 1901 he entered
medical school with the customary aim of becoming a physician.
Almost at once he attracted the attention of his professors in
the preclinical sciences. Stimulated and encouraged by them,
he became interested in physiological research and enhanced
that interest by advanced study abroad. Upon his return to the
United States, he became a member of a small but important
group of leaders who developed highly individual and produc-
tive research laboratories in several medical schools and in
several specialties of physiology.
Carl Wiggers's chief location was the medical school of
Western Reserve University for thirty-five years (1918-1953),
and his lifelong interest was cardiovascular physiology. Two
generations of physiologists and clinicians were stimulated to
follow research careers because of his influence as teacher, pre-
ceptor in research, lecturer, author, and editor. He was promi-
nent among those who formulated the physiological principles
363
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364
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
that underlie many of the recent, often spectacular, advances
in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. He
was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in
1951.
Carl John Wiggers was born in Davenport, Iowa, on May
28, 1883. He was the first of two children; a younger sister died
in childhood. His father, Jurgen Wiggers, accompanied by a
brother, John, had left the limited prospects of a small family
farm in the duchy of Holstein to seek opportunity in this
country. To pay their passage across the Atlantic, they served
as sailors and in 1876 arrived in New York as immigrants.
Jurgen, during a period of orientation, worked his way west as
far as Colorado through temporary farm jobs and even some
unsuccessful prospecting for gold. He subsequently returned
eastward to Scott County, Iowa, and settled in Davenport.
There, in 1882, he met and married Anna Margaretha Kundel,
whose family had also emigrated from Holstein. Eventually,
Jurgen Wiggers became manager of a social club called Lahr-
mann's Halle, which resembled the celebrated Ratskellern of
Germany and was a favorite rendezvous of professional and busi-
ness men in the downtown area of Davenport. In his autobiog-
raphy Carl Wiggers describes how his father, while still in
Holstein, had aspired to an education in law or even medicine.
For the father these ambitions could not be fulfilled; but the
son received parental encouragement for education toward a
profession, in addition to the usual German domestic traditions
and thrift.
Carl Wiggers attended elementary and high schools in Dav-
enport. Before he went to high school, his parents required that
he have in mind aims for a specific vocation or profession. To
keep within the family's limited resources, he chose pharmacy.
In high school his teachers of chemistry, physics, and zoology
provided special stimulation to young Wiggers; and he, an
eager student, proved especially interesting to them. They took
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CARL J OHN WIGGERS
365
"every opportunity to discuss his future aspirations and tactfully
awakened the idea" that he should aim for medicine rather than
pharmacy. In a carefully reasoned comparison between the
newer Johns Hopkins medical school (college degree required)
and the slightly older medical school of the University of Michi-
gan (high school diploma then still sufficient), Wiggers chose
the latter. In his choice he noted that he really couldn't afford
four years of college, that the organization and curricula of the
two schools seemed similar, and, more significantly, that Johns
Hopkins, in developing its own medical faculty, had, in fact,
chosen three of its professors from Michigan's faculty.
Early in medical school at Ann Arbor, Wiggers must have
shown again some qualities that attracted the immediate inter-
est of his first professors. His initial intentions to prepare for
public health work, or for practice in obstetrics and pediatrics,
gave way to curiosity concerning physiology and research. He
ascribed this change, first, to an "experiment in education" by
Professor Warren P. Lombard, which involved a "research
problem" assigned to students in the final weeks of their course
in physiology. Second, this was followed by Professor Arthur A.
Cushny's emphasis on the physiological actions of drugs. And,
third, Lombard offered Wiggers a paid student assistantship in
physiology that continued until he received his M.D. in 1906.
He was then promoted to an instructorship in physiology, which
he held from 1907 to 1911.
His publications began while he was a medical student. In
1905 he described the action of adrenalin on the cerebral blood
vessels and demonstrated his findings at the American Physio-
logical Society meeting in Ann Arbor that same year. At this
meeting he also heard reports and observed demonstrations by
well-known investigators such as Macleod, Brodie, Erlanger, and
Y. Henderson. By his own account the stimulation from infor-
mal conversations with these and other physiologists firmly
established his interest in physiology as a career. In the thirteen
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
papers that Wiggers published from 1905 to 191 1, he described
the responses of cerebral, coronary, and pulmonary blood ves-
sels to electrical or chemical stimulation; presented an improved
apparatus for measuring blood flow; and reported studies on
hemorrhage with particular emphasis on the ineffectiveness, or
even harmfulness, of adrenalin injections. As a group, these
papers present a general preview of areas and topics that Wit ers
continued to study in greater depth for forty years. His chief
lifelong interest, cardiac physiology, became obvious several
years later.
In 1907 Carl Wipers married Minerva E. Berry, a junior
medical student and thus, as he worded it, "two careers—one
scientific, the other domestic—were launched almost simulta-
neously," and their "coexistence proved facilitatory and salu-
tary." This was verified many times over by his wife's assistance
as part-time secretary and by her understanding companionship
and help during long hours of research and writing. They had
two sons, both of whom became eminent. One, Harold, became
himself a Professor of Physiology and later, in 1953, Dean of
Medicine at Albany Medical College. The other, Raymond,
entered the field of industrial advertising and became an award
winner in that area. In later years a lifelong habit of hospitality
and personal interest enlarged the social boundaries of the
Wiggers family and home to include research fellows, junior
staff members, colleagues, and visitors from other laboratories
and countries. It is significant that in 1952 the affection of this
larger family was expressed by their establishing at Western
Reserve University a joint honor entitled "The Minerva and
Carl Wiggers Annual Prize in Physiology."
In 1907, during his first year as an Instructor, Wiggers was
given the responsibility for a didactic and demonstration course
in physiology for dental students, who had become seriously
discontented with Professor Lombard's offerings. In this first
course, he revealed his conviction that, if subject matter was
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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
367
chosen wisely, basic courses could be made not only valuable to
students but also interesting. In describing the results of this
first responsibility for teaching, he made the modest and gently
humorous appraisal that "the attitude of dental students toward
physiology was changed; it no longer was regarded as an ordeal
but as a satisfaction, if not exactly a pleasure." The course led to
the publication in 1914 of his first book, ~4 Brief Text of
Physiology.
An important career decision was made by Wiggers early in
his instructorship. To supplement their low salaries, members
of basic science departments were allowed, and even encouraged,
to engage in limited practice of medicine. A brief test of such
part-time clinical work led him to conclude that it was hinder-
ing, not helping, his academic career, and reinforced his deci-
sion to make physiology his sole activity. In 1910 Professor
Lombard took a sabbatical year to study abroad, and Wiggers
became acting head of the department. He mentioned later that
it was helpful to learn at an early age the nature of administra-
tive work. At this time, with the advice of A. W. Hewlett, the
new Professor of Medicine, he used some hours in the basic
physiology course to demonstrate to first-year students how
physiologic information could be applied to clinical problems
and help interpret the signs and symptoms of disease in patients.
During this period Wiggers found that his studies were
being limited by the unreliability of the pressure recorclers then
available to physiologists. Professor Hewlett told him of the
optical recording methods devised by Professor Otto Frank in
Munich, and Wiggers promptly arranged, through Lombard,
then in Europe, for a year of study abroad. But this had to be
postponed to 1912 and abbreviated to a spring and summer be-
cause, on the recommendation of W. H. Howell of Johns
Hopkins, Graham Lusk invited him to come to Cornell Medical
School in New York as Instructor of Physiology. It was agreed,
however, that after a few months at Cornell, he would have a
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
leave of absence for study with Professor Frank at the Physio-
logical Institute of Ludwig-Maximilian University. Arriving
there in May 1912, Wiggers found that, as a representative of
Lusk's group, he was granted exceptional privileges in observing
the optical equipment and methods that the usually reserved,
even secretive, Otto Frank was developing in his laboratory for
measuring rapidly and accurately not only blood pressures, but
also pulse contours and rates of blood flow. By some additional
visits elsewhere, Wiggers also gained a "traveller's acquaintance
with other laboratories in Europe."
When Wiggers returned to New York in the summer of
1912, his research interests were not limited to physiology, but
continued to include cardiovascular disease also. To learn more
about the latter, he devoted one morning each week to attend-
ing ward rounds in Bellevue Hospital. He kept improving the
reflecting mirror manometer of Otto Frank and devised a mobile
unit that brought his equipment into use at the bedside. He
was promoted to Assistant Professor of Physiology in 1913. His
research from 1912 to 1918 dealt with many areas of cardio-
vascular function but began to deal increasingly with an analy-
sis of cardiac function, normal and abnormal. Early in this
period he published the first optically recorded pressure pulses
in the pulmonary arteries of dogs through cannulas inserted di-
rectly. These records, together with Otto Frank's studies of the
central arterial pulse in the aorta, permitted comparisons of
pressure levels in the lesser and greater arterial circulations. In
1917 he compared the timing of pressure changes in the heart
chambers with the contractions of heart muscle and with the
electrocardiogram. He was thus in a position to amplify the
findings of Thomas Lewis (later Sir) in London, who was chal-
lenging Einthoven's view that the electrical and mechanical
events of cardiac contraction were simultaneous. These observa-
tions indicated that electrical events preceded the contraction of
heart muscle and were a measure of the progressive conduction
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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
369
of the excitation process throughout the heart. With clinical
co-workers in Bellevue Hospital, he studied atrial fibrillation,
analyzed the supraclavicular venous pulse in man, and began
registering heart sounds. Even at this early stage he was con-
vinced that physiologists should at intervals describe in review
form the status of ongoing research in order to keep clinicians
well informed. His second book, Modern Aspects of the Circula-
tion in Health and Disease, published in 1915, was such a prog-
ress report. It was a monograph that described, with examples,
the usefulness of newer methods in the clinical diagnosis and
treatment of cardiovascular diseases as seen in hospital practice.
He was always a vigorous supporter of the view that advances
in medicine and surgery must be based upon an investigative
and basically physiologic approach to disease.
In 1917-1918 the entry of the United States into World
War I presented a new series of cardiovascular problems, rang-
ing from cardiac-fitness examinations in draftees, through neu-
rocirculatory asthenia or "soldier's heart" in stressed individuals,
to the physiologic principles underlying the diagnosis and
treatment of hemorrhage and shock in the severely wounded. In
1918 Wiggers served on a medical appeal board and used his
experience with electrocardiography to help adjudicate in cases
of draftees when physical fitness was disputed. At this time, too,
he became a member of a National Research Council Committee
on Shock. Sir Thomas Lewis invited him to come abroad to
share in a study of neurocirculatory asthenia, but he had to
decline, chiefly because Graham Lusk was on leave for war
research abroad, and again he was acting chairman of a depart-
ment. However, as a "Contract Surgeon" in U.S. Army General
Hospital #9, he spent a short time during the summer of 1918
in a research laboratory, headed by Professor Francis W. Pea-
body from Harvard, for the purpose of studying cardiac dis-
abilities in draftees and soldiers.
With all this in progress, and during a meeting of the Com-
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
mittee on Shock in Baltimore, Torald Sollman, Professor of
Pharmacology at Western Reserve Medical School, told Wiggers
that J. I. R. Macleod, then Professor of Physiology at Western
Reserve, had decided to accept a position with the University
of Toronto, and then urged him to consider accepting the vacant
professorship beginning with the autumn term of 1918. Wiggers
accepted, but only after making sure that he could arrange
matters at Cornell so that Graham Lusk would be inconve-
nienced as little as possible by his leaving.
Thus in 1918, and at age thirty-five, Wiggers began to estab-
lish in Cleveland his own center of cardiovascular research, first
in a small loft of the older medical building, and then from
1924 onward, in a separate floor of a new medical building in
which the physiology department had more space and facilities
as planned by Wiggers himself. The problems of new equip-
ment, staff, courses for students, and budgetary matters were
burdensome at times but did not perceptibly interrupt his
research and publications. During the thirty-five years from
1918 to 1953, almost every part, and almost every physiological
function, of the heart and blood vessels were the direct or indi-
rect topics of some study by Carl Wiggers or by his many
graduate students and co-workers. Approximately 400 papers
were published from the laboratories that Wiggers established
and supervised. In matters of authorship and credit, he was
again characteristically generous. In over half of these papers,
his colleagues and students were granted sole authorship. Wig-
gers believed firmly that beginning investigators deserved sole
authorship of papers dealing with their work, even though the
head of a laboratory may have given essential assistance in ideas,
advice, and editing. Wiggers also published a total of seven
books in editions ranging from one to five.
To do justice to the content of all these papers and books is
impossible in any brief memoir. It is fortunate that Wiggers
wrote in 1958 an autobiography entitled Reminiscences and
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CARL J OHN WIGGERS
371
Adventures in Circulation Research. That book provides a de-
tailed, chronological account of the questions that prompted his
research, his development of suitable equipment, and his ex-
periments and results. Descriptions of successes are balanced by
frank discussion of failures, oversights, and those second thoughts
that increasing experience and new facts produced. In this
brief memoir it is more appropriate to describe a few of the main
lineages of ideas that determined the major pathways and
methods used by Wiggers in his researches.
One of the earliest of these lineages dealt with analyzing the
interrelations of electrocardiographic, excitatory, contractile,
and hemodynamic events during the cardiac cycle. This was not
easy, because in the early 1900s it was necessary to import almost
all research equipment of any intricacy from instrument makers
abroad, and at great expense. When Wiggers began working in
Cleveland, conditions were improving, but it was still necessary
for him to establish a departmental workshop to produce his
own improved optical manometers for recording pressures or
sound, as well as cardiometers and flowmeters for volume mea-
surements. Moreover, each of these devices had in the past been
used separately by individual investigators and usually for lim-
ited and special problems. Most difficult of all was the task of
obtaining the best possible string galvanometers for electro-
cardiography, but this, too, was accomplished. In viewing the
· ,=
future of cardiac research, Winders saw that:
". . . by aligning such a galvanometer with optical recorders
for pressure, muscular contraction and heart sounds, the inter-
relations of electric and contractile events in the heart could be
determined more accurately than before. This problem was—
and remains—one of cardiologic as well as scientific interest, for
it is basic to the usefulness of electrocardiographic interpretation
of impulse conduction."
Each of the new instruments presented technical problems,
and combining several devices produced a really formidable
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
challenge. Nevertheless, Wiggers collected the data necessary to
produce a graphic summary that correlated the dynamic, me-
chanical, acoustic, and electrocardiographic events during the
normal cardiac cycle, lasting approximately 0.9 seconds. As a
chart this summary became a standard textbook figure and was
reprinted in reviews and books dealing with physiology, electro-
cardiography, and cardiology in general. It is still used as a
diagram upon which new data, such as single-cell membrane
action potentials, can easily be added.
In 1921 Wiggers wished to measure more accurately the
effects on the cardiac cycle of changing venous return, as in
muscular exercise, and of aortic pressure, as in hypertension. It
was necessary to subdivide ventricular systole and diastole into
smaller and more precise units. Eventually eight phases were
identified: isometric contraction, maximal ejection, reduced
ejection, protodiastole, isometric relaxation, rapid inflow, diasta-
sis, and atrial systole. The beginning and end of each phase was
defined precisely by relevant simultaneous changes of blood
pressure levels in the left ventricle, aorta, or atrium; by small,
more detailed changes in the configuration of the pressure
pulses; and by heart sounds. Also, for each phase, the normal
range of duration was measured. This subdivision of the cardiac
cycle was also widely used in physiology and cardiology. More-
over, from these studies developed a second lineage of problems,
ideas, and research.
During experiments on the exposed heart, Wiggers had been
impressed with its great resistance to drastic manipulations and
even injury. "However, it happened far too often that the thrust
of a cannula or stylus through the ventricular walls was followed
by irreversible fibrillation whose occurrence could not be re-
lated to the region involved, the nutrition or dynamic state of
the ventricles, or to the age of the animal. The hazard of
terminating an experiment by fibrillation was materially in-
creased when strong shocks were applied during systole...."
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388
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
gation of cardiovascular diseases. New Orleans Medical and Sur-
gical Journal, 81:601~.
Principles and Practice of Electrocard iography. St. Louis: C. V.
Mosby Co. 226 pp.
1930
Monophasic and deformed ventricular complexes resulting from
surface application of potassium salts. Am. Heart l., 5:346-50.
Studies of ventricular fibrillation caused by electric shock. II. Cine-
matographic and electrocardiographic observations of the nat-
ural process in the dog's heart. Its inhibition by potassium and
the revival of coordinated beats by calcium. Am. Heart i., 5:351-
65.
Studies of ventricular fibrillation caused by electric shock. I. The
revival of the heart from ventricular fibrillation by successive
use of potassium and calcium salts. Am. i. Physiol., 92:223-39.
Studies of ventricular fibrillation caused by electric shock. III. The
action of antagonistic salts. Am. l. Physiol., 93:197—212.
Physiologic meaning of common clinical signs and symptoms in
cardiovascular disease. I. Am. Med. Assoc., 96:603-10.
With H. Theisen and H. A. Williams. Further observations on
experimental aortic insufficiency. II. Cinematographic studies of
changes in ventricular size and in left ventricular discharge.
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 9:215-33.
The adsorptions of drugs from the right ventricular cavity. l.
Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 39:209 - 19.
With H. Green. Experimental aortic insufficiency. I. Regurgitation
maximum and mechanisms for its accommodation within the
mammalian ventricle. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 27:599-603.
Further observations on experimental aortic insufficiency. III. Fac-
tors accountable for the systolic collapse of the central pressure
pulse. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 28:85-88.
1931
With A. B. Maltby. Further observations on experimental aortic
insufficiency. IV. Hemodynamic factors determining the charac-
teristic changes in aortic and ventricular pressure pulses. Am. J.
Physiol., 97: 689-705.
The magnitude of regurgitation with aortic leaks of different sizes.
J. Am. Med Assoc., 97:1359-64.
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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
389
1932
With A. B. Maltby. Studies on human blood pressure criteria and
methods. I. The effects of partial and complete occlusion on
actual pressures in compressed arteries. Am. l. Physiol., 100:
604-13.
With O. Orias. The circulatory changes during hyperthermia pro-
duced by short radio waves (radiothermia>. Am. J. Physiol., 100:
614-28.
Physical and physiological aspects of arteriosclerosis and hyperten-
sion. Ann. Intern. Med., 6: 12-30.
1933
Anatomy and physiology. In: White House Conference on Child
Health and Protection. Growth and Development of the Child.
Part II. Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 288-332. New York: Cen-
tury Company.
With F. D. McCrea. Rhythmic arterial expansion as a factor in the
control of heart rate. Am. l. Physiol., 103:417-31.
With D. E. Gregg. The circulatory effects of acute experimental
hypervolemia. Am. I. Physiol., 104:423-32.
With F. S. Cotton. Studies on the coronary circulation. I. The coro-
nary pressure pulses and their interpretation. Am. I. Physiol.,
106:9-15.
With F. S. Cotton. Studies on the coronary circulation. II. The sys-
tolic and diastolic flow through the coronary vessels. Am. I.
Physiol., 106:597-610.
1934
The dominant control of mammalian ventricular dynamics by ini-
tial length. Revista de la Sociedad Argentina de Biologia, Suppl.,
10:546.
Further observations on systolic and diastolic coronary flow under
natural conditions. Science, 80:545-46.
Physiology in Health and Disease. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Lea &
Febiger. 1156 pp.
1935
With R. Tennant. The effect of coronary occlusion on myocardial
contraction. Am. l. Physiol., 112:351-61.
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390
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
With D. E. Gregg and H. D. Green. Phasic variations in peripheral
coronary resistance and their determinants. Am. i. Physiol.,
112:362-73.
With H. D. Gregg and D. E. Gregg. The phasic changes in coronary
flow established by differential pressure curves. Am. l. Physiol.,
112:627-39.
With H. C. Wiggers. The interpretation of monophasic action po-
tentials from the mammalian ventricle indicated by changes
following coronary occlusion. Am. J. Physiol., 113:683-89.
1936
With M. H. Fineberg. Compensation and failure of the right ventri-
cle. Am. Heart l., 11 :255-63.
With H. D. Green. The ineffectiveness of drugs upon collateral flow
after experimental coronary occlusion in dogs. Am. Heart i.,
11:527-41.
The inadequacy of the normal collateral coronary circulation and
the dynamic factors concerned in its development during slow
coronary occlusion. Am. Heart I., 11 :641~7.
Cardiac massage and countershock in revival of the mammalian ven-
tricles from fibrillation due to coronary occlusion. Am. l. Phys-
iol., 116: 161-62.
With i. R. Johnson. The alleged validity of coronary sinus outflow
as a criterion of coronary reactions. Am. J. Physiol., 118:38-51.
With H. D. Green. Ineffectiveness of drugs upon collateral coronary
flow. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 33:578-79.
The physiology of the coronary circulation. In: Diseases of the Coro-
nary Arteries and Cardiac Pain, ed. by R. L. Levy, p. 57. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
1937
The influence of Western Reserve University Medical School in
China. Clinical Bulletin of the University Hospitals of Cleveland,
1:12.
Physiology in Health and Disease. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Lea &
Febiger. 1124pp.
1938
Aspectos fisiologicos de la hipertension arterial. Actas y Trabajos,
Sexto Congreso Nacional de Medicine, Cordoba, Oct., p. 238.
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CARL J OHN WIGGERS
391
The dynamics of hypertension. Am. Heart i., 16:515~3.
The influence of vascular factors on mean pressure, pulse pressure
and phasic peripheral flow. Am. J. Physiol., 123:64~58.
With R. Wegria. Active changes in size and distensibility of the
aorta during acute hypertension. Am. l. Physiol., 124: 603-11.
Fibrillacion ventricular y resusitacion. Boletin Academia Nacional
de Medicina, Buenos Aires, 119: 567-87.
A note on some old experiments upon the cerebral circulation with
present day application. Libro de Oro, Buenos Aires, 3:1487.
1939
With G. W. Wright and W. R. Hallaran. The economy of effort in-
dex for hearts of normal and hypertensive subjects. Am. l.
Physiol., 126:89-96.
Inter-relaciones entre fisiologia y medicine. Revista Medica de Cor-
doba, 27: 1709.
Physiology in Health and Disease. ad ed. Philadelphia: Lea 8c
Febiger. 1144 pp.
1940
With N. H. Boyer and R. W. Eckstein. The characteristics of normal
heart sounds recorded by direct methods. Am. Heart J., 19:257-
74.
The mechanism and nature of ventricular fibrillation. Am. Heart l.,
20:399-412.
The physiologic basis for cardiac resuscitation from ventricular
fibrillation method for serial defibrillation. Am. Heart I., 20:
413-22.
With R. Wegria. Ventricular fibrillation due to single, localized
induction and condenser shocks applied during the vulnerable
phase of ventricular systole. Am. J. Physiol., 128:500-505.
With E. W. Shannon. The dynamics of the frog and turtle hearts-
the non-refractory phase of systole. Am. J. Physiol., 128:709-15.
With l. T. Dingle, G. T. Kent, and L. L. Williams. A study of
alleged quantitative criteria of vasomotor action. Am. I. Physiol.,
130:63-68.
With R. Wegria. Factors determining the production of ventricular
fibrillation by direct currents (with a note on chronaxie). Am. J.
Physiol., 131: 10~18.
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392
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
With R. Wegria. Production of ventricular fibrillation by alternat-
ing currents. Am. i. Physiol., 1 3 1: 1 1 9-28.
With R. Wegria. Quantitative measurement of the fibrillation
thresholds of the mammalian ventricles with observations on the
effect of procaine. Am. J. Physiol., 131:296-308.
With R. Wegria and B. Pinera. The effects of myocardial ischemia
on the fibrillation threshold the mechanism of spontaneous
ventricular fibrillation following coronary occlusion. Am. l.
Physiol., 131:309-16.
With M. L. Ford, C. L. Petersilge, and A. F. Young. Effect of acute
anoxia on the economy of effort index in man. Proc. Soc. Exp.
Biol. Med., 45: 353-55.
With P. Dow. Limitations of myocardial recovery from fibrillation
through countershock. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 45:355-57.
Pathways of medical progress. Science, 91:25-31.
1941
The ineffectiveness of vagal stimulation on ventricular fibrillation
in dogs. Am. J. Physiol., 133:634-36.
With R. Wegria and G. K. Moe. Comparison of the vulnerable
periods and fibrillation thresholds of normal and idioventricular
beats. Am. l. Physiol., 133:651-57.
With G. K. Moe and A. S. Harris. Analysis of the initiation of
fibrillation by electrographic studies. Am. J. Physiol., 134:473-92.
Cardiac adaptations in acute progressive anoxia. Ann. Intern. Med.,
14: 1237~7.
The mechanisms of peripheral circulatory failure. Ann. Intern.
Med.,15:178-89.
With H. D. Green. Heart. Ann. Rev. Physiol., 3:313-42.
Applicability of experimental results to the shock problem in man.
J. Am. Med. Assoc., 117:1143-47.
1942
With J. M. Werle and R. S. Cosby. Observations on hemorrhagic
hypotension and hemorrhagic shock. Am. J. Physiol., 136:401-20.
With J. M. Werle and P. C. Shea. Cardiac and peripheral resistance
factors as determinants of circulatory failure in hemorrhagic
shock. Am. J. Physiol., 136:421-32.
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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
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With R. N. Lewis and I. M. Werle. The behavior of the spleen in
hemorrhagic hypotension and shock. Am. l. Physiol., 138:205-11.
Basic hemodynamic principles essential to interpretation of cardio-
vascular disorders. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medi-
cine, 18:3-17.
Aviation physiology. I. The effects of anoxia. West. Reserve Univ.
Sch. Med. Clin. Bull., 6:82-87.
With I. M. Werle. Observations on hemorrhagic shock. Fed. Proc.
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With I. M. Werle and P. C. Shea. Cardiac and peripheral determi-
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The present status of the shock problem. Physiol. Rev., 22:74-123.
With I. M. Werle. Exploration of a method for standardizing hemor-
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1943
With R. Wegria and A. G. Rojas. A study of spontaneous fulminant
shock in a heart-lung dog preparation. Am. J. Physiol., 138:212-
29.
With R. Wegria and N. D. Nickerson. Reactions of the aorta in
hemorrhagic hypotension and shock. Am. I. Physiol., 138:491-94.
With S. Middleton. Some effects of pectin solutions during post-
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Recent studies on the irreversibility characteristic of shock. Exp.
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With K. A. Huizenga and B. L. Brofman. The ineffectiveness of
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With K. A. Huizenga and B. L. Brofman. Ineffectiveness of adreno-
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Recent observations on the value of adrenal cortex preparations in
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1944
With S. Middleton. The effects of renin and angiotonin on cardiac
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Laboratory studies of clinical problems in cardiology. Archivos del
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Cardiovascular aspects of shock and transfusion. Chicago Heart
Association Bulletin, 22~1-6~: 1-~.
Torald Sollman The Professor and Dean. West. Reserve Univ. Sch.
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Correlations of physiology instruction with war problems. Journal
of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 19:151-58.
Sequencia das reacoes cardiovasculares no choque. Rosenha Clinico-
Cientifica, 13: 144-49.
Physiology in Health and Disease. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lea &
Febiger. 1174 pp.
1945
Failure of transfusion in irreversible hemorrhagic shock. Am. l.
Physiol., 144:91-101.
The functional consequences of coronary occlusion. Ann. Intern.
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1946
With D. F. Opdyke and I. R. Johnson. Portal pressure gradients
under experimental conditions including hemorrhagic shock.
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With D. F. Opdyke. Studies of right and left ventricular activity
during hemorrhagic hypotension and shock. Am. l. Physiol.,
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With R. W. Eckstein and I. M. Liebow. Limb blood flow and
vascular resistance changes in dogs during hemorrhagic hypo-
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1947
La similitude de l'insu~sance circulatoire dans le choc aver volume
sanguin diminue ou normal. Acta Cardiologica, 2:113-35.
Myocardial depression in shock. Am. Heart l., 33:633-50.
With R. W. Eckstein and G. R. Graham. Phasic changes in inferior
cave flow of intravascular origin. Am. J. Physiol., 148:740-44.
With R. W. Eckstein, G. R. Graham, and I. M. Liebow. Comparison
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CARL JOHN WIGGERS
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of changes in inferior cave flow after hemorrhage and circulatory
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With M. N. Levy and G. R. Graham. Regional intrathoracic pres-
sures and their bearing on calculation of effective venous pres-
sures. Am. i. Physiol., 151: 1-12.
With R. M. Kohrman and l. B. Nolasco. Types of afferent fibers in
the phrenic nerve. Am. I. Physiol., 1 5 1: 547-53.
Peripheral circulation. Annul Rev. Physiol., 9:255-300.
With D. T. Overbey, A. Ramirez, and H. C. Lawson. Bleeding vol-
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1948
With R. S. Post and P. H. Visscher. Sequential changes in oxygen
consumption during oligemic and normovolemic shock and their
meaning. Am. i. Physiol., 153:71-80.
With l. L. Duomarco and W. H. Dillon. Comparison of cardiac
output by a direct method and the Hamilton-Remington proce-
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1949
The Department of Physiology. Alumni Bull. Sch. Med. Affil. Hosp.,
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Cardiological principles in surgery. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardio-
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The interpretation and treatment of heart failure during anesthesia
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Fisiologia normal y Patologica, 1st ed. Madrid: Espase-Calpe.
Physiology in Health and Disease. Sth ed. Philadelphia: Lea 8c
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Human experimentation as exemplified by the career of Dr. William
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The problem of functional coronary collaterals. Exp. Med. Surg.,
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19~51
Prefatory chapter. Physiology from 1900 to 1920: incidents, acci-
dents, and advances. Annul Rev. Physiol., 13: 1-20.
With T. C. Gupta. Basic hemodynamic changes produced by aortic
coarctation of different degrees. Circulation, 3:17-31.
Determinants of cardiac performance. Circulation, 4:485-95.
With i. Bordley, III, C. A. R. Conner, W. F. Hamilton, and W. l.
Kerr. Recommendations for human blood pressure determina-
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1952
Dynamics of ventricular contraction under abnormal conditions.
(The Henry Jackson Memorial Lecture) Circulation, 5:321 - 48.
The functional importance of coronary collaterals. Circulation, 5:
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Circulatory Dynamics: Physiological Studies. New York: Grune &
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1953
With R. S. Alexander. Cardiac factors of safety. Editorial. Circ. Res.,
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With H. M. Geller and M. Brandfonbrener. The derivation of coro-
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Defibrillation of the ventricles. Editorial. Circ. Res., 1:191-99.
With A. Hurlimann. The effects of progressive general anoxia on the
pulmonary circulation. Circ. Res., 1:230-37.
1954
The interplay of coronary vascular resistance and myocardial com-
pression in regulating coronary flow. Circ. Res., 2:271-79.
Research by groups and individuals. Editorial. Circ. Res., 2:479-82.
Function of the right ventricle. Science, 120: 789-90.
Spezielle hamodynamische Gesichtspunkte experimenteller Herz-
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1956
Some special aspects of hemodynamics. Bulletin de l'Academie Roy-
ale de Medecine de Belgique, 21:261-83.
Dynamic reactions induced by compression of an artery. Circ. Res.,
4:4-7.
lg58
Reminiscences and Adventures in Circulation Research. New York,
London: Grune & Stratton. 404 pp.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
ventricular fibrillation
