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Biographical Memoirs: Volume 51 (1980)

Chapter: Alfred Irving Hallowell

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Suggested Citation:"Alfred Irving Hallowell." National Academy of Sciences. 1980. Biographical Memoirs: Volume 51. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/574.
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ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL December 28, '892~ctober Z 0, ~ 974 BY ANTHONY F. C. WALLACE IN THE YEARS immediately following Work! War II, the University of Pennsylvania committed itself to the expansion of its Department of Anthropology. At the war's end, Frank G. Speck remained as the sole senior professor, aider! on a part-time basis by graduate student instructors and sundry curators from the University Museum. Speck callecl back his former student, Loren Eiseley, from Oberlin, as chairman, and Eiseley and Speck together persuaded their former colleague, A. Irving Hallowell, to return from Northwestern. Speck, Eiseley, ant! Hallowell then set out to create what has become one of the country's major depart- ments of anthropology. The few graduate students who were in resilience at the time of Hallowell's arrival in ~ 948 knew him primarily as one of the founclers of the new field of "culture and personality." He was particularly noted for his use of the Rorschach, or ink-blot, test to assess the personality structures of American Indian populations. This innovation in the use of projective techniques made him something of a controversial figure, for many anthropologists including his own mentor, Speck were not especially in favor of the kind of clinical approach to the study of human society that the use of such tools as the Rorschach seemed to imply. But as we came to know him as 195

196 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS a teacher and Divisor, we students realized that "the Ror- schach" was only a single aspect of Hallowell's extraordinarily rich mode of approach to the study of man. He brought to bear on his chosen subjects the Ojibwa Indians of the United States and Canada not only the concepts and tools of clinical psychology, but also the traditional ethnographic and linguistic skills he had learned from Speck and other teachers in the school of Franz Boas, the techniques of func- iional analysis that were being introduced by the social an- thropolog~sts, and a trained capacity for historical and schol- arly analysis. 'rhis variety of intellectual resources made his explorations of Ojibwa society at once precisely descriptive and richly evocative models for emulation by others working in other communities. Hallowell was, incleecI, one of the prin- cipal figures in the development of modern ethnography, which is distinguished by its effort to combine detailed! de- scription in standardized categories of overt observable be- havior (the "etic" approach) with careful attention to the need to infer the more-or-less covert cognitive ant] emotional structures of the people being observed (the "emic" ap- proach). EDUCATION The diversity of professional abilities that Hallowell brought to bear in teaching and research was partly owing to an eclectic sort of educational career. His parents, Edgar Lloyc! ant! Dorothy Ecisall Hallowell, were According to HallowelI) of a "conservative" inclination, ant! perceiving in their son "no outstanding talents" or "professional" interest, sent him to a three-year manual training high school and then to college at the Wharton School of Finance and Com- merce at the University of Pennsylvania. The Wharton School at that time, before World War I, offered a broad curriculum not only in business courses but also in the social

ALFRED IRVI NG HALLOWELL 197 sciences, and furthermore required its students to take liberal arts courses outside the school itself. So Hallowell studied, in addition to technical subjects necessary to a business edu- cation, all the courses in economics and sociology that were offered ant! sampler! such topics as chemistry, history, En- glish literature, ant! Italian Renaissance painting. This expo- sure to the liberal arts and to the atmosphere of social reform fed the fires of rebellion against conservative family values ant! cultivated what he later characterized as his "socialistic inclinations." Plans to enter upon a business career were lair! aside, and unable to finch funds to finance a graduate ecluca- tion in sociology, Hallowell went into social work as a case- worker for the Family Society. This experience brought him into contact with poverty and into the houses of unfamiliar ethnic groups, black and white. During his social work years Hallowell continued to take courses in sociology. He was also exposed to the new ideas of psychoanalysis through the lectures of the anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work. And he took some courses with an old friend and fellow fraternity member from undergraduate days, Frank G. Speck, who was now teaching anthropology at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. Speck's lectures opened his eyes to a wide vista of cultures, "far beyond] the ethnic groups in my own back yard," ant! he decided to leave social work for anthropology. He took an M.A. in anthropology in 1920 and a Ph.D. in 1924. He entered upon the stage as a full-fledge(i follower of the school of Franz Boas, who had briefly taught both Speck and Hallowell in his seminar at Columbia and whose abstract conception of anthropology as the Science of Man in all his aspects, physical, psychological, linguistic, and cultural seemec! to provide that broad base that was requires! to transcend provincial American culture ant! acIdress the basic problems of social reform.

198 B I OGRA P H I C A L M E M O I RS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS Hallowell's doctoral dissertation was "Bear Ceremonial- ism in the Northern Hemisphere" and was published as a whole issue of the Amen can Anthropologist in 1926. This work brought together (lata from northern Europe, Asia, and North America to reveal the existence of a complex system of beliefs and ceremonies about the bear which were, in varying local expressions, almost universally practiced among primi- tive peoples in the circumboreal culture area. He also drew attention to archaeological remains from the Paleolithic which indicated an extraordinary antiquity, on the order of tens of thousands of years, for this widely-diffused culture complex. The work remains a classic contribution to culture history. But Hallowell was not satisfied with the role of compara- tive ethnologist, which would require more work in the li- brary than in the fiel(l, and so after some casting about, in the late 920's he began that series of studies of northern AIgon- kian life and culture which he was to continue for the re- mainder of his professional career. His works on the Abenaki of Quebec, the Montagnais-Naskapi of Labrador, and partic- ularly the Saulteaux or Ojibwa of the Lake Winnipeg region were significant not merely in providing a rich ant! intimate portrait of one of the few remaining hunting-and-gathering cultures in North America, but also because the Ojibwa papers and monographs revealed his theoretical ant! meth- oclological innovations which, because they could be applied in any ethnographic setting, were of general interest to an- thropologists. One of the tragedies of his professional life was the loss in the mails of the only copy of the final summary of the Ojibwa ethnology which Hallowell wrote during his emer- itus years and which his deteriorating health prevented him from (loin" over again.

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 199 The Ojibwa series (which follower! one paper on the Abe- naki and one on the Montagnais-Naskapi) began in 1934 and by the time of Hallowell's death amounted to about forty individual papers, articles, chapters, and one monograph (The Role of Conjuring in Saulteaux Society, 1942~. The works cover virtually all aspects of Ojibwa culture kinship and social organization, economics and technology, ecological re- lationships (particularly as they affected lane! tenure), social control, values and morality, medicine, religion, folklore, temporal and spatial orientation, cireams, sexual behavior— and deal in addition with factors of personality structure, mental health, and culture change. Taken together, they con- stitute one of the most complete recordings of the changing way of life of a hunting-and-gathering population that is available in the ethnographic record. The theoretical and methodological issues addressed in the Ojibwa series shifted, over the years, from strictly ethno- logical matters to those involving psychological considera- tions. The initial stimulus was a classic but conventional- question concerning the relation between kinship terminol- ogy and rules of marriage. The older evolutionary theorists of the nineteenth century had postulated a close connection between the two, but more recent opinion, as advanced by Boas ant! his students, questioned the tightness of the cou- pling and suggested that changes in kin terms were linguistic rather than sociological phenomena. After discovering evi- dence in some oIcl dictionaries to suggest that the northern AIgonkians might in fact once have practiced cross-cousin marriage (as their surviving cousin terminology wouIc! have suggested to an evolutionist), Hallowell read a paper asking, "Was Cross-Cousin Marriage Practiced by the North-Central AIgonkian?" This paper received no support and a very crit- ical appraisal. But learning that another ethnologist hac! re- cently found Naskapi men actually marrying their mother's

200 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS brother's daughters, Hallowell was spurred to visit a related AIgonkian group, the Saulteaux (Ojibwa) of the Lake Winni- peg region to learn for himself. In his brief autobiography (1972), Hallowell recorcled one of the classic native answers to a field worker's apparently naive question: I well remember an early conversation with William Berens, my closest collaborator. I hesitatingly asked him whether a man could marry a woman he called ninam (female cross-cousin). His reply was, "Who the hell else would he marry?" And throughout the series occur reports on material culture, the size of hunting territories as a function of ecological ad- justment, the role of conjuring and the decline of native ceremonies, folktales, ant! various other necessary, if conven- tional, parts of standard ethnography. But increasingly the topics dealt with psychological ques- tions. Hallowell's interests in this area included, but extencled beyoncl, the field of "personality and culture," which con- cerns itself primarily with the relation between the motiva- tional structure of inclivicluals, couched more or less in the language of psychoanalysis and clinical psychology, and the culture of their group as the ethnographer describes it. In his view, the entire field of psychology was potentially relevant to the concerns of anthropology, and so he was eager to take advantage of the findings and methods of learning theory, of gestalt psychology, of the test-and-measurement filid, ant] of the newer work in perception which emphasized the impor- tance of the social ant! cultural characteristics of the perceiver in determining what is perceived and known. His writings on the phenomenology of perception of space and time among the Ojibwa were read and cited frequently by psychologists who were eager for confirmation of their finclings in cross- cultural research. In a very real sense, Hallowell completed one of the tasks which Boas. with great prescience, had fore-

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 20 seen as theoretically central not only for anthropology but also for science as a whole. The early physicist Boas, trained in psychophysics to study how the observer's characteristics determine his perception of experimental phenomena, had generalized this Kantian view of epistemology to include a concern with the way in which the "genius of a people" deter- mines their perception of the material world, of the cultural repertoire presented to them for acceptance by their neigh- bors, and even of themselves. In his work on the cultural determinants of perception, Hallowell thus carried forward the investigation of one of the great problems of epistemol- ogy and of the philosophy of science. With his abiding interest in the subject of perception, it is perhaps not surprising that Hallowell shouIc! turn to tests of perception the so-called projective techniques and partic- ularly to the Rorschach test as his favored technique of assess- ing indiviclual Ojibwa personalities. He collected a series of 266 Rorschach records from various Ojibwa communities, and although he never prepared an over-all summary of the results in the form of a sketch of typical Ojibwa personality structures, he used the data in a number of papers, including both those descriptive of Ojibwa cases and those explicating the use of the Rorschach test in cross-cultural research. He encourages! his students to use the Rorschach for compara- tive studies; my own dissertation research involving the use of Rorschach protocols was concluctec! under his guidance. Undoubtedly the best known and most controversial of Hallowell's works on Ojibwa personality were those in which he (lescribed an aboriginal personality type an isolate(l, tightly controlled, atomistic individual well adapted to the hunter's life failing to change, except pathologically, under the stress of acculturation, particularly in reservation cir- cumstances. This notion of"psychological lag" is, in a formal way, not unlike the so-called "doctrine of survivals," which in

202 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS more sophisticated form is sometimes invoker! in analyzing the functional relations among changes in kinship terminol- ogy, marriage rule, and rules of residence ant! crescent. Crit- ical attacks on the iclea of the aborig~nality of the family hunting territory among the northern AIgonkians (which Speck had originates! and to which he hac! contributed) and a wholesale assault on the image of the northern hunters as "atomistic," resting in part on the claim that his views were based on a refusal to accept the Marx/Engels theory of cul- tural evolution, left him unmoved. In his mature years, Hallowell clevelopec! further his ideas about the nature of the human personality and began to construct a theory of psychological evolution. Invoking again the theme of the self as perceiver, he posed the problem: at what point in human cultural evolution did man become an object to himself? Such a transformation he viewed as crucial, for only with this perceptual reflexivity is a moral, ant! there- fore human, social order conceivable. Anthropology itself he finally came to view as one more step in the long evolutionary process of man becoming aware of man. POSITIONS, SERVICES, AND HONORS Hallowell's initial academic appointment was as instructor in anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania from ~ 923 to 1928. Successive promotions followed; he became full pro- fessor in 1939. Thereafter, apart from the years spent at Northwestern from 1944 to 1947, Hallowell remained in res- iclence as Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania until his retirement in 1963. Ant} even after that he maintained a busy office in the department, where he conductec! business for the National Academy of Sciences and counseled students and colleagues. During his emeritus years he was sought after as a teacher on a number of cam- puses, including Wisconsin and Chatham College, and

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 203 formed a particularly strong connection at Bryn Mawr, where he taught regularly ant! helped to supervise clisserta- tions until a few years before his death. He also served various institutions in other capacities. At the University of Pennsylvania he held the positions of Cura- tor of Social Anthropology in the University Museum and of Professor of Anthropology in Psychiatry in the Medical School. He served as Chairman of the Division of Anthropol- ogy and Psychology in the National Research Council from 1946 to 1949, as President of the American Anthropological Association in 1949, and as President of the American Folk- lore Society and the Society for Personality Assessment. He editec! the Wenner-Gren Foundation's monographs series, the Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, from 1950 to 1956. Among his honors and awards may be mentioner! his election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1961 and to the American Philosophical Society in 1963. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in ~ 940, received the Viking Meclal for outstanding achievement in anthropology in ~ 956, and was accorded! an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Pennsylvania on his retirement in 1963. In ~ 965 a Festschrift was published in his honor, eclitec! by Melford Spiro and entitled Context and Meaning in Cultural Anthropology. PERSONAL STYLE During the years when T knew him as student ant! col- league, Hallowell lived in a comfortable oIc! frame house in a woodsy suburb of Philadelphia. There he and his wife, Maude, on occasion entertained students, faculty, and visi- tors to the area at small gatherings where the talk revolved around personality structure ant! its assessment, psychocul- tural evolution, and other psychologically oriented aspects of

204 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS anthropology. Hallowell was enthusiastic in conversation and encouraged students to argue and debate him. On occasion he could be testy, however, and it was said by awes! graduate students that he invariably took a negative position to any new proposal submitted to his judgment but that he generally worked his way around to approval of it two days later. In lecturing, as in writing, Hallowell liked to surround the points he macle in clear academic prose with a thicket of allusions to the literature, so that lecture notes and published papers alike bristled with footnotes and bibliographical asides. The style of all this was, however, more sprightly than pedantic, and in personal conversation the apparatus of scholarship was replaced by a func! of humorous but illustra- tive anecdotes. Although he set high stanciarcis of scholarship for himself and his students, he regarded the machinery of examinations and dissertations more as a developmental pro- cess than as a series of hurdles to exclude the unworthy. ~ well recall his remark after ~ hac! completed my dissertation (uncler his supervision): "I'm going to tell you what Frank told me when ~ finished my dissertation. Now that you've got that out of the way, you can get to work."

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 This bibliography of the writings of A. I. Hallowell is a combination, with slight modification, of two bibliographies previously published in the two volumes of his collected works: Culture and Experience (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955; paperback reprint with new pref- ace by Hallowell, Schocken Books, 1974) and Contrzbu~ons to Anthropology: Selected Papers of A. Irving Hallowell, edited by Raymond D. Fogelson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976~. The later work also contains a brief autobiographical memoir; the former, several previously unpub- lished papers, which are noted in the bibliography. 1921 Indian corn hills. Am. Anthropol., 23:233. 1922 Two folk tales from Nyasaland (Bantu Texts). }. Am. Folk-Lore, 35:216-18. 1924 Anthropology and the social worker's perspective. The Family, 5:88-92. 1926 Bear ceremonialism in the northern hemisphere. Am. Anthropol., 27:1-175. Following the footsteps of prehistoric man. General Magazine and Historical Chronicle, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 28:117-22. 1928 Recent historical changes in the kinship terminology of the St. Francis Abenaki. Proceedings, Twenty-second International Congress of Americanists (Rome), 97-145. Was cross-cousin marriage practiced by the North-Central Algon- kian? Proceedings, Twenty-third International Congress of Americanists (New York), 519~4. 1929 The physical characteristics of the Indians of Labrador. I. Soc. Americanistes Paris, Nouvelle Serie, 21:337-71.

206 Anthropology in the university curriculum. The General Mag- azine and Historical Chronicle, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 32: 47-54. BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS . . 1930 [Editorial comments; the results of the Safe Harbor "Dig." Bull., Soc. Pa. Archaeol., 1. 1932 Kinship terms and cross-cousin marriage of the Montagnais- Naskapi and the Creel Am. Anthropol., 34:171-99. Foreword to Henry Lorne Masta, Abenaki Indian legends. Gram- mar and Place Names, Victoriaville, P.Q., Canada, 9-12. 1934 Some empirical aspects of northern Saulteaux religion. Am. An- thropol., 36:673-74. Culture and mental disorder. l. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 29:1-9. 1935 The bulked enema syringe in North America. Am. Anthropol., 37:708-10. Notes on the northern range of Zizania in Manitoba. Rhodora, 37:365~8. Two Indian portraits. The Beaver, No. 3, Outfit 226:18-19. 1936 Psychic stresses and culture patterns. Am. }. Psych., 92:1291-1310. The passing of the Midewiwin in the Lake Winnipeg region. Am. Anthropol., 38:32-51. Anthropology yesterday and today. Sigma Xi Quarterly, 24: 161~9. Two Indian portraits. The Beaver, No. 1, Outfit 267:24-25. 1937 Temporal orientation in western civilization and in preliterate society. Am. Anthropol., 39:647-70.

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 207 Cross-cousin marriage in the Lake Winnipeg area. Twenty-fifth Anniversary Studies (Philadelphia Anthropological Soc.), 95-100. Introduction. "Handbook of Psychological Leads for Ethnological Field Workers," prepared for the Committee on Culture and Personality (Chairman, Edward Sapir), National Research Council. Mimeographed, 60 pp. For printed versions see Per- sonal Character and Cultural Milieu, pp. 257-303, a collection of readings, compiled by D. G. Haring (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ed- wards Brothers, 1948~; The Study of Personality, pp. 264-308, a book of readings compiled by Howard Brand (New York: John Wiley, 1954~. 1938 Fear and anxiety as cultural and individual variables in a primitive society. I. Soc. Psychol., 9:25-47. Shabwan: a dissocial Indian girl. Am. I. Orthopsychiatry,8:32~40. The incidence, character and decline of polygamy among the Lake Winnipeg Cree and Saulteaux. Am. Anthropol., 40:235-56. Notes on the material culture of the Island Lake Saulteaux. I. Soc. Americanistes Paris, Nouvelle Serie, 30:129~40. Freudian symbolism in the dream of a Saulteaux Indian. Man, 38 :47~8. Review, Tom Harrison, savage civilization. Annals (American Academy of Political and Social Science), 196:264~5. 1939 Sin, sex and sickness in Saulteaux belief. Br. I. Med. Psychol., 18:191-97. The child, the savage and human experience. Proceedings, Sixth Institute on the Exceptional Child (The Woods Schools, Lang- horne, Pa.), 8-34. Reprinted in: Personal Character and Cultural Milieu, pp. 304-30, compiled by D. G. Haring (1948~. Some European folktales of the Berens River Saulteaux. }. Am. Folk-Lore, 52: 155-79. With Dorothy M. Spencer. Anthropology. In: Volume Library, ed. R. Webster, pp. 95-110. N.Y.: The Educators Association. Growing up—savage and civilized. National Parent-Teacher, 34~4~:32-34.

208 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 1940 Aggression in Saulteaux society. Psychiatry, 3:395-407. Reprinted in: Personality in Nature, Society and Culture, ed. Clyde Kluckhohn and H. A. Murray, pp. 204-19 (N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948~. Spirits of the dead in Saulteaux life and thought. l. R. Anthropol. Inst., 70:2~51. Magic: the role of conjuring in Saulteaux society (papers presented before the Monday night group, 1939-1940~. Institute of Human Relations, Yale Univ. 1941 With Leslie Spier and Stanley S. Newman, eds. Language, Culture and Personality: Essays in Memory of Edward Sapir. Menasha, Wisc.: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund. The special function of anxiety in a primitive society. Am. Sociolog. Rev., 7:869~1. Reprinted in: Personal Character and Cultural Milieu, pp. 331-43, compiled by D. G. Haring (1948~. Psychology and anthropology. Proceedings of the Eighth Ameri- can Scientific Congress (Wash., D.C.), 2:291-45. The Rorschach method as an aid in the study of personalities in primitive societies. Character and Personality, 9:23~45. The Rorschach test as a tool for investigating cultural variables and individual differences in the study of personality in primitive societies. Rorschach Research Exchange, 5:31-34. (A prospec- tus written prior to collection of first Rorschach protocols in 1938.) 1942 The Role of Corljurang in Saulteaux Society. Philadelphia: Univ. Penn- sylvania Press. xiv + 96 pp. Acculturation processes and personality changes as indicated by the Rorschach technique. Rorschach Research Exchange, 6:42-50. Reprinted in: Personality in Nature, Society and Culture, ed. Clyde Kluckhohn and H. A. Murray, pp. 34(}46 (1948~. Some psychological aspects of measurement among the Saulteaux. Am. Anthropol., 44:62~7. Some reflections on the nature of religion. Crozer Quarterly, 19: 26~77.

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 209 With E. L. Reynolds. Biological factors in family structure. In: Mamage and the Family, ed. H. Becker and R. Hill, pp. 25~6. Boston: D.C. Heath. 1943 Discussion of nativistic movements by Ralph Linton. Am. Anthro- pol., 45:240. The nature and functions of property as a social institution. J. Legal Polit. Sociol., 1:115-38. Reprinted in: Morris R. Cohen and Felix S. Cohen, Readings in Jurisprudence and Legal Philosophy, pp. 8 1 1-22 (N.Y.: Prentice-Hall 1 95 1 ). Araucanian parallels to the Omaha kinship system. Am. Anthro- pol., 45:489-91. 1945 Sociopsychological aspects of acculturation. In: The Science of Man in the World Crisis, ed. R. Linton, pp. 171-200. N.Y.: Columbia Univ. Press. The Rorschach technique in the study of personality and culture. Am. Anthropol., 47:195-210. Popular responses and culture differences: an analysis based on frequencies in a group of American Indian subjects. Rorschach Research Exchange, 9: 153-68. 1946 Some psychological characteristics of the northeastern Indians. In: Man in Northeastern North America, ed. F. Johnson. Papers of the R. S. Peabody Foundation for Archeology, 3:195-225. Concordance of Ojibwa narratives in the published work of Henry R. Schoolcraft. I. Am. Folk-Lore, 59:136-53. 1947 Myth, culture, and personality. Am. Anthropol., 49:54~56. 1949 The size of Algonkian hunting territories, a function of ecological adjustment. Am. Anthropol., 51:35-45.

210 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS Psychosexual adjustment, personality, and the good life in a non- literate culture. In: Psychosexual Development in Health and Disease, ed. Paul H. Hoch and Joseph Zubin, pp. 102-23. N.Y.: Grune and Stratton. 1950 Personality structure and the evolution of man. Am. Anthropol., 52: 159-73. (Presidential Address, Am. Anthropol. Assoc., Nov. 18, 1949.) Values, acculturation and mental health. Am. I. Orthopsychiatry, 20:732-43. 1951 Cultural factors in the structuralization of perception. In: Social Psychology at the Cross Roads, ed. }. H. Rohrer and M. Sherif, pp. 16~95. N.Y.: Harper. Frank Gouldsmith Speck, 1881-1950. Am. Anthropol., 53:67-75. The use of projective techniques in the study of the sociopsycho- logical aspects of acculturation. I. Projective Techniques, 15:27-44. (Presidential Address, Society for Projective Tech- niques, October 8, 1950.) 1952 Ojibwa personality and acculturation. In: Acculturation in the Amer'- cas (Proceedings and Selected Papers of the Twenty-ninth Inter- national Congress of Americanists), ed. Sol Tax, pp. 105-12. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. John the bear in the New World. I. Am. Folk-Lore, 65 (258~: 418. 1953 Culture, personality and society. In: Anthropology Today, ed. A. L. Kroeber, pp. 597-620. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Discussion. An Appraisal of Anthropology Today, pp. 83~7, 96, 129-30, 133, 155, 170-73, 224, 227, 332-35, 352. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. 1954 Comments on Clyde Kluckhohn. Southwestern studies of culture and personality. Am. Anthropol., 56 (Southwest Issue): 700-703.

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 211 Psychology and anthropology. In: Far a Science of Social Man, ed. John Gillin, pp. 160-226. N.Y.: Macmillan. The self and its behavioural environment. Explorations, 2(April). 1955 Comments on symposium projective testing in ethnography. Am. Anthropol., 57:262~4. Culture and Experience. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. 434 pp. - 1956 Structural and functional dimension of a human existence. Q. Rev. Biol., 21:8~101. The Rorschach technique in personality and culture studies. In: Developments in the Rorschach Technique, ed. Bruno Klopfer et al. vol. 2. Yonkers, N.Y.: World Publishing. Preface. Primary Records in Culture and Personality, ed. Bert Kaplan, vol. 1. Madison, Wisc.: Microcard Foundation. 1957 The impact of the American Indian on American culture. Am. Anthropol., 59:201-17. The backwash of the frontier: the impact of the Indian on Ameri- can culture. In: The Frontier in Perspective, ed. W. D. Wyman and C. B. Kroeber. Madison, Wisc.: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Rorschach protocols of 151 Berens River adults and children and 155 adults from Lac du Flambeau. In: Microcard Publications of Primary Records in Culture and Personality, No.6, ed. Bert Kaplan. Madison, Wisc.: Microcard Foundation. Discussion, with others, of Issues in Evolution (vol. 3 of Evolution after Darwin), ed. Sol Tax and C. Callender, pp.17~206 passim. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Algonkian tribes. In: Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 1, p. 628. Chi- cago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Frank G. Speck. In: Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 21, p. 1770. Chi- cago: Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Ojibwa. In: Encyclopaedaa Britannica, vol. 16, p. 911-12. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

212 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 1961 The protocultural foundations of human adaptation. In: Social Life of Early Man, ed. S. L. Washburn, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, No. 30, pp. 23~55. N.Y.: Wenner-Gren Foun- daiion for Anthropological Research. To Nigeria. Phil. Anthropolog. Soc. Bull., 14~1~:7-11. 1962 Anthropology and the history of the study of man (unpublished manuscript prepared for the Social Science Research Council's Conference on the History of Anthropology). 1963 Personality, culture and society in behavioral evolution. In: Psychol- ogy: A Study of a Science, ed. S. Koch, vol. 6, pp. 42~509. N.Y.: McGraw-Hill. The Ojibwa world view and disease. In: Man's Image in Medicine and Anthropology, ed. I. Galdston, pp. 258-315. N.Y.: International Universities Press. American Indians, white and black: the phenomenon of transcul- turalization. Curr. Anthropol., 4:51~31. 1965 The history of anthropology as an anthropological problem. I. Hist. Behavioral Sci., 1 :2~38. Hominid evolution, cultural adaptation, and mental dysfunction- ing. In: Ciba Foundation Symposium, Transcultural Psychiatry, ed. A. V. S. ale Reuck and Ruth Porter, pp. 2~54. London: I. A. Churchill. 1966 The role of dreams in Ojibwa culture. In: The Dream and Human Societies, ed. G. W. von Grunebaum and R. R. Caillois, pp. 267-92. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. 1967 Anthropology in Philadelphia. In: The Philadelphia Anthropological Society: Papers Presented on Its Golden Anniversary, ed. J. W. Gruber, pp. 1-31. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. Preface. In: Culture and Experience. N.Y.: Schocken Books.

ALFRED IRVING HALLOWELL 213 1968 Speck, Frank G. In: International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. D. L. Sills, vol. 15, pp. 115-17. N.Y.: Macmillan (Free Press). Bear ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere: Reassessment. (Unpublished manuscript in the possession of Frederica de Laguna.) 1972 On being an anthropologist. In: Crossing Cultural Boundaries, ed. S. T. Kimball and J. B. Watson, pp. 51-62. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing. 1976 Northern Ojibwa ecological adaptation and social organization. Contributions to Anthropology: Selected Papers of A. Irving Hallowell. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. 534 pp.

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Biographic Memoirs: Volume 51 contains the biographies of deceased members of the National Academy of Sciences and bibliographies of their published works. Each biographical essay was written by a member of the Academy familiar with the professional career of the deceased. For historical and bibliographical purposes, these volumes are worth returning to time and again.

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