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RALPH WALDO GERARD
October 7, ·900-February 17, 1974
BY SEYMOUR S. KETY
DWRING THE MIDDLE DECADES of the twentieth century,
study of the nervous system became a major component
of biological research, growing from a strong base in mor-
phology and physiology to involve all of the biological and
behavioral sciences. It was not by chance that this clevelop-
ment coincided with the time anal span of Ralph Gerard's
scientific career, for he was one of a small number of intellec-
tual leaders who brought it about.
Born in Harvey, Illinois at the beginning of this century,
Ralph Gerard was blessed with an uncommon intellectual
enclowment, a heritage that has traditionally held scholarship
and ethics in high regard, and a remarkable father who nur-
tured his scientific curiosity. His father, Maurice Gerard, who
hacI come to America from Central Europe after receiving a
degree in engineering in Britain, was a self-employecl con-
sultant to industry. He named his son after Emerson, whom
he admired, and saw for him the career in pure science that
he had been unable to pursue. From his father, Ralph Gerard
also gained an appreciation of mathematics and of chess,
showing particular aptitude for the latter, so that in his
teens he beat the American champion and the world cham-
pion at different times when they were playing simultaneous
matches in Chicago.
179
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
He completed the four-year course at Chicago's Hyde
Park High School in two years, by passing examinations in
subjects he already knew or hacT taught himself outside of
class.
He entered the University of Chicago at the age of fifteen,
where he took at least one course in every one of the sciences
offerec} and in most of the other disciplines besides. In this
way, the natural genius and irrepressible interest that had
been stimulated and reinforced by his father was broadened,
uncloubtecTly contributing to his comprehension of many
fields as a scientist and his unique ability to compound and
integrate that knowledge with ever-widening scope. He was
strongly influenced by Julius Stieglitz in chemistry, and by
Anton CarIson and Ralph Lillie in physiology and neuro-
physiology. He received his doctorate in physiology in 1921.
Shortly thereafter, he married Margaret Wilson, who had
just completect her doctorate in neuroanatomy, and together
they finished their meclical training at the Rush Medical Col-
lege in 1925. Margaret Wilson Gerard went on to train in
pediatrics and psychiatry and to become an outstanding
scholar and practitioner of child psychiatry until her death in
1954.
Ralph Gerard took an internship at the L`os Angeles Gen-
eral Hospital, at the end of which he was faced with what he
felt was the major career decision of his life. He was offered
a much-coveted residency in medicine at the same time that
he was awardecI a National Research Council fellowship in
neurophysiology and neurochemistry. He accepted the
research fellowship. In an interesting revelation of his restive
nature and lack of complacency, he recalled that decision at
times with some misgiving, even after achieving worIdwicle
acclaim as a neurophysiologist.
The research fellowship launched him most propitiously
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
181
on his career in neuroscience. With A. V. Hill and Otto
Meyerhoff, two giants in biophysics and biochemistry, re-
spectively, he carrier! out pioneering research leading to the
recognition that the concluction of the nerve impulse cle-
pencled on biochemical processes along the nerve. When he
returned to the University of Chicago in 1928, he was faced
with another major decision. An offer by Carison of an ap-
pointment in physiology was more than matched by Dallas
Phemister, who was in the process of establishing the Depart-
ment of Surgery in the new Medical School there. Again he
chose physiology and remained in that department for
twenty-five years. His laboratory there, which encompassed
all of the promising neurobiological clisciplines, trained a
large number of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows,
several of whom were later to become leaclers in neuro-
sclence.
in 1952 Gerard was asked to develop and direct the re-
search laboratories of the Neuropsychiatric institute of the
University of TIlinois, and he spent the next two years orga-
nizing a multidisciplinary research program that brought
neurology and psychiatry more closely together, as well as the
fundamental disciplines that sustain them both.
After the death of Dr. Margaret Gerard, he accepted an
invitation from Ralph Tyler to join the first group of dis-
tinguished fellows of the Center for Advanced Stucly in the
Behavioral Sciences, which had been established adjacent to
the campus of Stanford University.
During the preceding sixteen years, while he was engaged
in some of his most significant contributions to neurophysiol-
ogy, he fount! time to contemplate and address philosophical
and social problems that lay beyond neuroscience. He pub-
lished "The Role of Pure Science" in 193S, "Organism, Soci-
ety and Science" in 1940, "A Biological Basis for Ethics" and
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
"Higher Levels of Integration" in 1942, "Extrapolation from
the Biological to the Social" in 1945 and, in 1946, "The Bio-
logical Basis of Imagination."
At the Center in Palo Alto, Ralph Gerard's interest in the
behavioral and social sciences expanded further in what must
have been exciting interactions with Anato} Rapoport, Clyde
Kluckhohn, Franz Alexancler, Paul Lazarsfeld, and Alex Ba-
velas, from which emerged "Biological and Cultural Evolu-
tion" in 1956 and, in 1957, "Problems in the Institutionaliza-
tion of Higher Education."
In January 1955 he married Leona Bachrach Chalkley,
whom he had known since high school when they were cap-
tains of opposing debating teams. "Frosty," as he preferred to
call her, in addition to being a skilled debater, is an accom-
plishecl writer and poet. In the course of the fellowship year
at the Center, another salutary event occurred when James
Miller invited Gerard to join him and Anato! Rapoport in
founding the Mental Health Research Institute at the Uni-
versity of Michigan, and Ralph Gerard spent many hours
discussing with Anato! Rapoport the possibility of creating a
new and broader consortium of sciences dedicated to the
stucly of behavior. Convinced of the sincerity and commit-
ment of the Commonwealth and University of Michigan to
this important concept, he accepted this opportunity and
spent more hours with Miller, planning the philosophy and
scope of the new research institute.
Ralph and Frosty spent the next nine years at Ann Arbor,
where he was professor of neurophysiology and director of
the Institute's laboratories. During that time the Mental
Health Research Institute grew from imaginatively conceived
plans to one of the outstanding behavioral and psychiatric
research centers in the nation, with a scope that embraces!
fundamental neurochemical and physiological research, the
behavioral sciences, and information processing. He clevotecT
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
183
the bulk of his research efforts during that time to organizing
and leading a multifaceted stucly of schizophrenia, the most
important of the mental illnesses in terms of loss of fulfi~-
ment to the inctividual and family and cost to society.
At the age of sixty-four, when some might have thought
of retiring, Ralph Gerard instead accepted a new and
broa(ler challenge, moving to the new Irvine campus of the
University of California as professor of biological sciences
and clean of the Graduate Division. This enabled him to
revive the imaginative interest in teaching and eclucational
philosophy that earlier hac3 made him one of the most stimu-
lating contributors to the new concepts of undergraduate
education introcluced by Robert Hutchins shortly after Ralph
Gerard's appointment to the University of Chicago. At Irvine
he continued his nurture of neuroscience, participating in
the establishment of the important Department of Psycho-
biology. Most of his energies and wisclom, however, were
cievotecT to the wicler fields of education, science, society, and
the social aspects of medicine.
At the age of seventy he retired to throw himself filthy into
civic affairs. At the same time his wife and his colleagues
became concerned over some changes in his personality and
some slowing of his intellectual functions. An intracerebral
tumor was discoverecI, but even for this ominous situation,
his remarkable brain found a salutary resolution. The tumor
turned out to be a benign meningioma, which was remover!
successfully and with complete recovery. Frosty has related a
remarkable incident at that time that describes his indomita-
ble spirit: "Service for a year on the Orange County Grand
Jury meant so much to him that two days following the neu-
rosurgical operation, and while he still remained in the hos-
pital's intensive care unit, he insisted on dictating to me a
letter to the Grand Jurors. He wrote them about his feelings
when tests hac! revealed the existence of a massive tumor. If
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
further tests had suggested that the mass was malignant, he
would have refused to undergo surgery anct merely awaited
the end. Instead, a benign tumor was inclicatect, he had taken
his chances, and won. He wanted them to know that he was
eager to rejoin them and to carry his share of the loacl. Two
months later he was among them." For the next three-and-
one-half years Ralph Gerard remained active; he ctied of
coronary insufficiency in 1974.
Ralph Gerard was elected to the National Academy of
Sciences and to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
in 1955. He was the recipient of numerous honors and
awards. Honorary degrees were bestowed upon him by the
Universities of Maryland, Leiden, and St. Andrews, and by
Brown University and McGill University. He was awarded
the Medal of Charles University and the Orcler of the White
Lion in Prague in 1946, the Stanley Dean Award in 1964, the
Alumni Medal of the University of Chicago in 1967, and the
Extraordinarius Awarcl of the University of California at Ir-
vine, posthumously. He was a Distinguished Fellow of the
American Psychiatric Association ant! an Honorary Fellow of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A long list of honorary lec-
tureships in this country and abroad attests to his interna-
tional esteem and his brilliance as a speaker. He was a consul-
tant to numerous research arms of the federal government,
including the Office of Naval Research, the National Institute
of Mental Health, and the National Science Foundation, and
an advisor to numerous private founclations.
Ralph Gerarc] was so extraordinary a man that he became
a legend cluring his lifetime. His intellectual power was his
outstanding characteristic, expressed early on by scholastic
precocity, in micl-career by creative insights and the careful
execution of crucial experiments, and at the end of his career
in encyclopeclic erudition ant! wisdom. His knowlecige of the
scientific literature, perceptiveness, and ability to synthesize
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
185
observations in a great variety of clisciplines, coupled with an
almost poetic fluency in articulating and crystallizing issues,
macle him highly regarcled as a teacher and as a summarizer
of scientific conferences, in which he was undoubtedly one of
the worId's leaders for several decades. He also possessed a
remarkable sense of humor and a comparable fund of anec-
dotes, which were always to the point. Among his physical
characteristics, more striking than his portly figure and bawl
pate, were his eyes, which have been described as "bright and
restless the visible edge of a keen and probing mine! . . . eyes
that showed by their sparkle not only the excitement of ctis-
covery, but also a reflection of profound awe before the intri-
cacy and complexity of the natural order."* These attributes
will remain in the memories of his students and colleagues
and all who knew him, but his most enduring legacy will be
in his contributions to science, and particularly to neuro-
science. During the twenty-five years that he devoted to lab-
oratory research, he was responsible for a remarkable num-
ber of pioneering insights and discoveries that opened up
areas of neurobiological research that are far from exhausted
today.
Ralph Gerard aptly clescribed the motivation anti signifi-
cance of his scientific career as a commitment to "the minute
experiment and the large picture.": His contributions ful-
fi~lect that commitment generously, for they demonstrate his
remarkable ability to design and conduct rigorous research
that crucially examines a specific hypothesis. They also epito-
mize his vision, imagination, and courage to perceive the
implications of the experimental results to the broact picture
* The Reverend Edward P. Allen, remarks on the occasion of a memorial convo-
cation, University of California at Irvine, 7 March 1974.
~ R. W. Gerard, "The Minute Experiment and the Large Picture," in The Neuro-
sciences: Paths of Discovery, ed. F. G. Worded,. Swazey, and G. Adelman (Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1975), pp. 456-74.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
that would eventually emerge. He was both an architect of
neuroscience ant! a stone carver.
He attributed his enduring interest in the nervous system
to a brief encounter with Anton CarIson, his professor of
ohvsiolo~Y. while a student at the UniversitY of Chicago.
1 J (JJ ' J
Gerard successfully defended his unwillingness, on logical
grounds, to draw the accepted conclusion from a laboratory
experiment that had for years been user! to demonstrate the
nonfatigability of nerve. CarIson appreciated the wisdom in
what a lesser man might have seen as brashness, took a con-
tinuing interest in young Gerard, anal, several years later,
recommender! him for the National Research Fellowship he
was awarded in 1925.
That fellowship permitted him to participate in A. V.
Hill's classical demonstration of heat production by nerve
and to make his first major discovery in the delayed heat
production that follows a period of stimulation. Gerard de-
scribec! those observations at Hill's suggestion at the Interna-
tional Physiological Congress in Stockholm in 1926 and in his
paper on "The Two Phases of Heat Production of Nerve" in
1927. He tract found that of the total quantity of heat attribut-
able to a period of stimulation, only ~ ~ percent was releaser!
during the stimulation, the much larger moiety being liber-
ated over a period as long as ten minutes immediately follow-
ing the stimulation.
Although the heat generated in muscular contraction had
been clemonstratect and measured for a long time, the much
smaller amounts associated with nerve conduction had re-
mained elusive. Hill, thirty-three years after this successful
demonstration, recounted his many previous unsuccessful
attempts and those of others going back to Helmho~z's first
attempt in 1848, explaining its importance:
Why did people go on trying to measure the heat production of nerve,
in spite of repeated failure? Chiefly, ~ suppose, in order to settle the
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
187
question of whether the nerve impulse is the sort of physical wave in which
the whole of the energy for transmission is impressed on the system at the
start.... If it could be shown that heat really was produced all along the
nerve during transmission, then the purely physical theory of conduction
would be untenable. A distributed relay system would be required, with
energy derived presumably from chemical change.*
During the second year of his fellowship, Gerard moved
to the laboratory of Otto Meyerhoff in Berlin in order to
examine some of the chemical processes involves! in axonal
transmission ant! the differences he surmised wouIc! exist
cluring stimulation and recovery. With the use of specially
prepared chambers of small size, he was able to measure the
oxygen consumer! and the carbon dioxide released by a seg-
ment of nerve at rest and cluring stimulation. He founc! that
whereas the resting oxygen consumption of nerve and mus-
cle were equal, the increase during stimulation in muscle was
8,000 times greater than that achieved in nerve. In addition,
he measured the temperature coefficient of the oxygen me-
tabolism in nerve arid its respiratory quotient at rest ant!
cluring stimulation, and found evidence for the development
of an oxygen debt in nerve cluring anoxic stimulation.
The increased oxygen consumption of stimulated nerve
was soon challenged as an artifact resulting from unphysio-
logical stimulation rather than the physiological activity that
resulted. F. O. Schmitt was able to counter that criticism by
demonstrating that the oxygen consumption was correlatecI
with the number of transmitted impulses rather than the
amount or intensity of the stimulation. Then, in the summer
of 1933, Gerard and H. K. Hartline established that physio-
logical transmission alone accounted for the increased oxy-
gen consumption:
Hartline and I agreed to test this out on the Limulus optic nerve,
~ A. V. Hill, `'The Heat Production of Muscle and Nerve, 1848- 1914," Annual
Review of Physiology, 2 1 ( 1959): 1 - 18.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
isolated along with the attached eye. The first attempt, using small War-
burg vessels, was clearly far below the required sensitivity; but the problem
was solved that same night by threading the optic nerve into a capillary
through a Vaseline seal, the eye being outside and the far end being closed
with a measuring drop. Two such capillaries in a large closed test tube in
a thermostat were arranged so that light could be shined on the eye of
either nerve, and each one thus constituted a control for the other. The
movement of the index drop was followed with an ocular micrometer
minute by minute. The oxygen consumption when "natural" nerve im-
pulses were carried was established, and a valuable microrespirometer
became available. Since our time commitments were such that we had less
than a week to work together, experiments were continued day and night
and neither of us was out of his clothes for the entire period.*
With H. M. Serota he looker! for a similar coupling of
metabolism to functional activity within the mammalian
brain, where, unfortunately, the elegant technique he had
used on the optic nerve was inapplicable. Using temperature,
the only approach available to them, but which they could
measure accurately, they inserted five thermocouples into
particular structures by means of a stereotaxic instrument.
They recognized that a change in temperature accompany-
ing functional activity at a point within the brain could be the
result either of altered metabolism or altered perfusion.
They also reasoned that where the temperature of the blood
and brain was the same, a sudden increase in temperature
was likely to indicate the liberation of metabolic heat. Record-
ing temperature changes and electrical activity, they were
able to demonstrate an increase in both in the optic raclia-
tions, the lateral geniculate, ant] the visual cortex upon
illumination of the eye. It was not until forty years later that
Louis Sokoloff succeeded in conclusively demonstrating the
highly localized increased metabolism that accompanies func-
tional activity in the visual system.
* R. W. Gerard, "The Minute Experiment."
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
1934
201
With O. M. Solandt, D. Y. Solandt, and E. Ross. Methemoglobin
and methylene blue as cyanide antagonists. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.
Med., 31: 539-41.
With H. K. Hartline. Respiration due to natural nerve impulses. A
method for measuring. I. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 4:141-60.
With B. B. Rubinstein. A note on the respiration of arbacia eggs. J.
Gen. Physiol., 17:375-81.
With A. V. Hill, W. O. Fenn, and H. S. Gasser. Physical and chem-
ical changes in nerve during activity. The chemical activity of
nerve. Science, 79 (Suppl.~:20-26.
With B. B. Rubinstein. Fertilization and the temperature coef-
ficients of oxygen consumption in eggs of arbacia punctulata
Gen. Physiol., 17:677-85.
The irritability of a non-medullated nerve. I. Physiol., 83:24-25.
1935
.~.
With McK. Cattell. The inhibitory effect of high-frequency stimula-
tion and the excitation state of nerve. I. Physiol., 83:407-15.
With M. Shaffer and T. H. Chang. The influence of blood con-
stituents on oxygen consumption in nerve. Am. J. Physiol.,
111:697-709.
With T. H. Chang and M. Shaffer. The influence of electrolytes on
respiration in nerve. Am. I. Physiol., 111:681-96.
1936
With G. L. Engel. The phosphorus metabolism of invertebrate
nerve. I. Biol. Chem., 112:379-92.
With H. Seroia. Localized thermal changes in brain. Am. l. Physiol.,
116:59.
With N. O. Brookens and L. Ectors. Respiration of local brain
regions. Technique and applications. Am. J. Physiol.,
116:16-17.
With H. W. Magoun. Influence of potassium and calcium on motor
discharges. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 34:755-56.
With M. S. Kharasch, R. R. Legault, and A. B. Wilder. Metal cata-
lysts in biologic oxidations. I. The simple system. I. Biol. Chem.,
113:537-55.
With M. S. Kharasch, R. R. Legault, and A. B. Wilder. Metal cata-
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
lysts in biologic oxidations. II. Tissue inhibitors. J. Biol. Chem.,
113:557-69.
With W. H. Marshall and L. I. Saul. Electrical activity of the cat's
brain. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 36:675-735.
With F. Offner. A high speed crystal ink writer. Science, 84:
20~10.
Metabolism and excitation. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant.
Biol., 4:194-201.
Factors controlling brain potentials. Cold Spring Harbor Symp.
Quant. Biol., 4:292-304.
Factors influencing brain potentials. Trans. Am. Neurol. Assoc.,
62:55-60.
1937
The metabolism of brain and nerve. Annul Rev. Biochem.,
6:419-44.
With M. B. Cohen. Oxidizing enzymes in brain extracts. Am. I.
Physiol., 119: 34-47.
With H. Blake. Brain potentials during sleep. Am. I. Physiol.,
119:692-703.
With J. Z. Young. Electrical activity of the central nervous system of
the frog. Proc. R. Soc. London, 122B:343-52.
With L. Schoen. The role of dicarboxylic acids in brain oxidations.
Am. J. Physiol., 119:397 - 98.
With N. Tupikova. Salt content of neural structures. Am. J. Phys-
iol., 119:414-15.
With R. A. Cohen. Hyperthyroidism and brain oxidations. I. Cell.
Comp. Physiol., 10:223 -40.
With H. M. Serota. Localized thermal changes in the cat's brain. I.
Neurophysiol., 1: 115-24.
Brain metabolism and circulation. Proceedings, Association for Re-
search in Nervous Mental Disease, 18:316-45.
1938
With B. Libet. Automaticity of central neurones after nicotine block
of synapses. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 38:886-88.
With L. E. Ectors and N. L. Brookens. Autonomic and motor lo-
calization in the hypothalamus. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry,
39:789-98.
The role of pure science. Science, 88:361-68.
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Anoxia and neural metabolism. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 40:
985-96.
With N. Tupikova. Creatine in nerve, muscle and brain. I. Cell.
Comp. Physiol., 12:325-60.
With O. Sugar. Anoxia and brain potentials. I. Neurophysiol.,
1 :558-72.
1939
With N. Tupikova. Nerve and muscle phosphates. I. Cell. Comp.
Physiol., 13: 1 - 12.
With H. Blake and N. Kleitman. Factors influencing brain poten-
tials during sleep. J. Neurophysiol., 2:48-60.
With B. Libet. Control of the potential rhythm of the isolated frog
brain. J. Neurophysiol., 2:153-69.
With H. H. Dubner. Factors controlling brain potentials in the cat.
J. Neurophysiol., 2: 142-52.
With E. Tokaji. Avitaminosis B. and pigeon brain potentials. Proc.
Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 41 :653 - 58.
Mechanism of action of "shock therapies." Arch. Neurol. Psychia-
try, 42:564-65.
1940
With O. Sugar. Spinal cord regeneration in the rat. J. Neurophys-
iol., 3:1-19.
With B. Libet. The control of normal and "convulsive" brain
potentials. Am. I. Psychiatry, 96: 1125-51.
Organism, society and science. Sci. Mon., 50:340-50, 403- 12,
530-35.
1941
With F. Panimon and M. K. Horwitt. Orthophenanthroline as
accelerator of brain tissue oxygen consumption. I. Cell. Comp.
Physiol., 17:17-29.
With F. Panimon and M. K. Horwitt. Iron induced oxidations in
brain and other tissues. I. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 17:1-16.
With B. Libet. Steady potential fields and neurone activity. J. Neu-
rophysiol., 4:438-55.
The interaction of neurones. Ohio J. Sci., 41:160-72.
Intercellular electric fields and brain function. Schweiz. Med. Wo-
chenschr., 12:555 -59.
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With J. Tobias. An improved capillary microrespirometer. Proc.
Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 47:531-33.
Science at the celebration. Univ. Chicago Mag., 34:12-14.
1942
With }. Pearce. The respiration of neurones. Am. }. Physiol., 136:
49-65.
A biological basis for ethics. Philos. Sci., 9:92-120.
Higher levels of integration. Science, 95: 309- 13.
Electrophysiology. Annul Rev. Physiol., 4:329-58.
1944
With F. P. Simon and M. K. Horwitt. The inhibition of catalyzed
oxidations by hemins. }. Biol. Chem., 154:421-25.
1945
With A. E. Emerson. Extrapolation from the biological to the social.
Science, 101:582 - 85.
1946
The biological basis of imagination. Sci. Mon., 62:477-99.
With J. M. Tobias, C. C. Lushbaugh, H. M. Patt, S. Postel, and M.
N. Swift. The pathology and therapy with 2, 3-dimercapto-
propanol (BAL) of experimental cadmium poisoning. ]. Pharma-
col. Exp. Ther. (Suppl.), 87:102-18.
With H. M. Patt, }. M. Tobias, M. N. Swift, and S. Postel. Hemody-
namics in pulmonary irritant poisoning. Am. }. Physiol., 147:
329-39.
With }. Graham. Membrane potentials and excitation of impaled
single muscle fibers. I. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 28:99-117.
Nerve metabolism and function. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.,47:575-600.
With S. Postel, J. M. Tobias, and H. M. Patt. The effect of exercise
on mortality of animals poisoned with diphosgene. Proc. Soc.
Exp. Biol. Med., 63:432-36.
1947
With F. P. Simon and A. M. Potts. Metabolism of isolated lung
tissue: Normal and in phosgene poisoning. J. Biol. Chem.,
167:303- 11.
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RALPH WALDO GERARD
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With F. P. Simon and A. M. Potts. Action of cadmium and thiols on
tissues and enzymes. Arch. Biochem., 12:283-91.
With L. L. Boyarsky and I. M. Tobias. Nerve conduction after
inactivation of choline esterase. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.,
64: 106-8.
The scope of science. Sci. Mon., 64:496-512.
With S. W. Kuffler. The small-nerve motor system to skeletal mus-
cle. J. Neurophysiol., 10:383 - 94.
Science and the public. Science, 106:23-25.
Anesthetics and cell metabolism. Anesthesiology, 8:453-63.
With R. D. Tschirgi. The carotid-mandibular reflex in acute respi-
ratory failure. Am. J. Physiol., 105:358-64.
1949
With A. M. Potts and F. P. Simon. The mechanism of action of
phosgene and diphosgene. Arch. Biochem., 24:329-37.
Physiology and psychiatry. Am. J. Psychiatry, 106: 161 - 73.
With V. B. Brooks and R. E. Ransmeier. Action of anticholines-
terases, drugs and intermediates on respiration and electrical
activity of the isolated frog brain. Am. I. Physiol., 157:299-316.
With }. M. Tobias, S. Postel, H. M. Patt, C. C. Lushbaugh, and M.
N. Swift. Localization of the site of action of a pulmonary irri-
tant, diphosgene. Am. J. Physiol., 158:173-83.
With G. Ling. The normal membrane potential of frog sartorius
fibers. }. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 34:383-96.
With G. Ling. The influence of stretch on the membrane potential
of the striated muscle fiber. I. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 34:397-
405.
With G. Ling. The membrane potential and metabolism of muscle
fibers. I. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 34:413-38.
1950
With A. M. Potts, F. P. Simon, }. M. Tobias, S. Postel, M. N. Swift,
and H. M. Patt. Distribution and fate of cadmium in the animal
body. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Occup. Med., 2:175-88.
A biologist's view of society. Common Cause, 3:630-38.
With G. Ling. Effect of external potassium concentration on the
membrane potential of single muscle fibers. Nature, 165:
113-14.
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