NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is interim president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
This is a report of work supported by Contract DAAM01-96-K-0002 between the U.S. Army Chemical and Biological Defense Command, and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05934-8
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 97-80862
Limited copies are available from:
Board on Army Science and Technology
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20418
(202) 334-3118
Additional copies are available for sale from:
National Academy Press
Box 285 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20055 800-624-6242 or 202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)
Copyright 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Cover photo: Land Warrior, courtesy of Mr. Michael Doney, U.S. Army Project Manager-Soldier, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia.
COMMITTEE ON ELECTRIC POWER FOR THE DISMOUNTED SOLDIER
JOSEPH E. ROWE, Chair,
University of Dayton Research Institute (retired), Dayton, Ohio
JAMES D. MEINDL, Vice Chair,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
HAMILTON W. ARNOLD,
Bell Communications Research, Inc., Red Bank, New Jersey
ROBERT W. BRODERSEN,
University of California, Berkeley
ELTON J. CAIRNS,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
PAUL G. CERJAN,
Lockheed Martin Corporation, Arlington, Virginia
WALTER L. DAVIS,
Motorola, Inc., Austin, Texas
CHARLES W. GWYN,
Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, California
DEBORAH J. JACKSON,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
MILLARD F. ROSE,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
ALVIN J. SALKIND,
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway
DANIEL P. SIEWIOREK,
Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
NELSON R. SOLLENBERGER,
AT&T Labs-Research, Holmdel, New Jersey
WILLIAM F. WELDON,
University of Texas, Austin
NANCY K. WELKER,
National Security Agency, Fort Meade, Maryland
Board on Army Science and Technology Liaison
CLARENCE G. THORNTON,
Army Research Laboratories (retired)
Staff
ROBERT J. LOVE, Study Director
DUNCAN M. BROWN, Technical Writer
CECELIA L. RAY, Senior Project Assistant
BOARD ON ARMY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CHRISTOPHER C. GREEN Chair,
General Motors Corporation, Warren, Michigan
WILLIAM H. FORSTER, Vice Chair,
Northrop Grumman Corporation, Baltimore, Maryland
ROBERT A. BEAUDET,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles
GARY L. BORMAN,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
LAWRENCE J. DELANEY, Consultant,
Potomac, Maryland
MARY A. FOX,
University of Texas, Austin
ROBERT J. HEASTON,
Guidance and Control Information Analysis Center (retired), Naperville, Illinois
KATHRYN V. LOGAN,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
THOMAS L. McNAUGHER,
The Arroyo Center, RAND Corporation, Washington, D.C.
NORMAN F. PARKER,
Varian Associates (retired), Cardiff by the Sea, California
STEWART D. PERSONICK,
Bell Communications Research, Inc., Morristown, New Jersey
MILLARD F. ROSE,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
HARVEY W. SCHADLER,
General Electric Corporation, Schenectady, New York
CLARENCE G. THORNTON,
Army Research Laboratories (retired), Colts Neck, New Jersey
JOHN D. VENABLES,
Venables & Associates, Towson, Maryland
ALLEN C. WARD,
Ward Synthesis Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
Staff
BRUCE A. BRAUN, Director
ROBERT J. LOVE, Study Director
MARGO L. FRANCESCO, Administrative Associate
ALVERA V. GIRCYS, Financial Associate
CECELIA L. RAY, Senior Project Assistant
Preface
One of the critical problems facing soldiers on the battlefields of the twenty-first century will be the availability of sufficient electric power to support their needs in an information-rich environment that will require voice, data, and image transmissions over extended distances. In many instances, soldiers will have to function for extended periods of time, days or even weeks, totally detached from any supporting platform. This will require not only the continued development of battery cells, fuel cells, fueled systems, hybrids, and chargers but also the development of technologies that require less energy. There is no single or simple solution to the problem of providing adequate electric power to the dismounted soldier.
This study examines all relevant technologies that might be used on the battlefield and considers the requirements for the Land Warrior Program as a starting point for assessing the energy needs of dismounted soldiers. Two time frames are considered: 2000 to 2015 (Force XXI and Land Warrior upgrades) and 2015 to 2025 (the Army After Next).
The task statement from the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Research and Technology requested that the National Research Council, through the Board of Army Science and Technology of the Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, carry out a study addressing multidisciplinary approaches to working within the power limitations of the dismounted soldier on future battlefields. The study included the following tasks:
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meet with the Army and the Army research community to determine the basic requirements underlying the demand and consumption of electric power by the dismounted soldier on post-digitization battlefields
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identify technologies applicable to the availability and consumption of electric power, including technologies that may have been overlooked in previous studies (that considered only energy storage and delivery)
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provide an integrated assessment of the state of the art in the applicable technology areas and an assessment of commercial research and development capabilities and the likelihood that they will meet Army requirements
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develop advanced concepts for optimizing the availability and consumption of electric power for the dismounted soldier (consider the net gains that could be realized through low power electronics, C4I systems design and application, and advances in information technology or doctrine).
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develop strategic research objectives and a conceptual plan to guide the Army in light of what the scientific and industrial community at large is likely to accomplish.
Participants in the study were selected from many disciplines in anticipation of the broad array of technologies that needed to be addressed. From the outset, it was noted that the National Research Council was not tasked to identify or describe the evolution of new systems; rather, it was charged to identify and assess technologies likely to affect soldier energy needs in the future. The Army was called upon to describe its requirements and the role of dismounted soldiers in both near- and far-terms, and the NRC relied upon experts in technology development to describe advanced energy concepts.
A study plan was developed to respond to each element of the task statement. Meetings with the Army and other agencies were held at locations central to subject matter experts. The National Research Council in Washington, D.C. was the site of five meetings. The U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command Research, Development and Engineering Center at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, hosted two fact-finding sessions. The Motorola Government Systems Group in Scottsdale, Arizona, hosted a third fact-finding session. Specific presentations are listed in Appendix A.
The study committee formed four panels to assess different technology areas and to develop advanced concepts for power. The Energy Sources and Systems Panel focused on the supply side; the other three panels (Networks, Protocols and Operations; Communications, Computers, Displays and Sensors; and Low Power Electronics and Design) focused on technologies with the potential to reduce demand. After each panel made its assessment, the findings were integrated into a cohesive assessment of possibilities for the time frames represented by Force XXI and the more distant Army After Next. Frequent communication among participants to resolve differences of opinion were facilitated by electronic mail and teleconferencing. Army staff members at all locations were very helpful in providing critical information.
Joseph E. Rowe, Chair
Committee on Electric Power for the Dismounted Soldier
Figures and Tables
Figures
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ES-1 |
Land Warrior subsystems |
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1-1 |
U.S. Army Land Warrior |
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1-2 |
Organizational structure of an infantry squad |
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1-3 |
Energy train |
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2-1 |
Requirement categories of the soldier system |
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2-2 |
Land Warrior subsystems |
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2-3 |
Model for introducing technology and digitizing the battlefield |
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3-1 |
Specific energy and specific power for various energy storage media |
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3-2 |
Graph showing the ''crossover" points for battery and fuel cell power systems as functions of available energy and system mass |
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5-1 |
Complexity of microprocessors by year of introduction |
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5-2 |
Complexity of cellular phones and pagers by year of introduction |
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5-3 |
Operating frequency of high-end microprocessors used in desk-top computers by year of introduction |
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5-4 |
Improvement in the speed-power characteristic of integrated circuit processes by year of introduction |
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5-5 |
Power drain versus performance for microprocessors used in desk-top computers from 1989 to 1993 |
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5-6 |
Power drain characteristics of recent microprocessors |
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5-7 |
Performance of general-purpose programmable DSP by year of introduction |
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5-8 |
Basic complementary gate structure |
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5-9 |
Power savings of low-voltage logic operation |
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5-10 |
Power distribution used in portable products |
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5-11 |
Power dissipation due to system interconnections |
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5-12 |
Radio frequency power required for reliable communications |
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5-13 |
Computer system attributes |
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5-14 |
Functions of the multimedia terminal, including the interface to a high speed wireless link |
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5-15 |
I/O device interfaces |
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5-16 |
Block diagram of a display and associated electronics iinterface |
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5-17 |
Block diagram of a generic imaging array |
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5-18 |
Soldier's vest and helmet with laser detectors |
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6-1 |
Hierarchical wireless system architecture used by commercial PCSs and cellular systems |
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6-2 |
Peer-to-peer (nonhierarchical) wireless system architecture representative of Land Warrior |
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6-3 |
Time-slotted alerting scheme used by commercial cellular systems, PCSs, and paging systems |
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6-4 |
Simplified push-to talk access protocol used by SINCGARS and other military wireless systems |
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7-1 |
Projected MIPS/W performance of microprocessors and programmable digital signal processors over time |
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C-1 |
Chronological improvements in the capacity of AA size nickel batteries |
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C-2 |
Projected performance of 50 W hydrogen PEMFCs with a variety of fuel storage techniques |
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C-3 |
Graph showing the crossover points for battery and fuel cell power systems as functions of available energy and system mass |
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C-4 |
State of the art of hydrogen PEMFCs |
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C-5 |
State of the art of DMFCs |
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C-6 |
System mass as a function of available energy |
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C-7 |
Available energy as a function of power system mass for a thermoelectric power generator fueled by battlefield fuel |
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C-8 |
Schematic drawing of an alkali-metal thermal-to-electrical converter (AMTEC) |
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C-9 |
Estimated performance of an AMTEC system |
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C-10 |
Schematic drawing illustrating the principles of thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power systems |
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C-11 |
Estimated thermophotovoltaic (TPV) system mass as a function of mission energy for point designs currently funded by DARPA |
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C-12 |
Schematic representation of a particle bed CDL |
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C-13 |
Typical power-time profile for pulsed digital communications devices |
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D-1 |
Interconnect length distribution density function: interconnect length distribution density versus interconnect length |
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D-2 |
Average power transfer per binary switching position, P, versus transition time, td |
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D-3 |
Number of transistors per chip, Ntr, versus calendar year, Y |
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D-4 |
Number of interconnect elements per chip, Nint, versus calendar year, Y |
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E-1 |
Composite performance of speech-operated systems |
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E-2 |
Impact of power management on wearable computers |
Tables
|
ES-1 |
Research Objectives |
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2-1 |
Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System |
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3-1 |
Technology Summary of Energy Systems |
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4-1 |
Semiconductor Product Characteristics |
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4-2 |
Semiconductor Product Technology |
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4-3 |
Semiconductor Package Characteristics |
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5-1 |
Power Requirements of the Land Warrior System by Function |
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5-2 |
Power Requirements of the Land Warrior Computer |
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5-3 |
Capacity and Performance of Computer Systems |
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5-4 |
Comparison of the Number of Steps Required to Retrieve Information Using Selection Buttons and Speech |
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5-5 |
Ease-of-Use Metrics |
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5-6 |
Computational Requirements to Support Various User Interfaces |
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5-7 |
Radiated Energy Captured by the Viewer |
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5-8 |
Land Warrior Sensor Suite Power Requirements |
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5-9 |
Integrated Sight Module (ISM) Power Requirements |
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5-10 |
Integrated Helmet Assembly Subsystem (IHAS) Power Requirements |
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5-11 |
GPS Power Requirements |
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5-12 |
Performance Characteristics of the BodyLAN |
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6-1 |
Required Transmission Rates |
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6-2 |
Transmitter Power Needed to Maintain 16-Kilobit-Per-Second Link at 75 MHz |
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6-3 |
Transmitter Power Needed to Maintain 16-Kilobit-Per-Second Link at 1.5 GHz |
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6-4 |
PCS Technologies Used in the United States |
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7-1 |
Estimated Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System |
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7-2 |
Comparison of Power Requirements for the Land Warrior System and Notional Dismounted Soldier Systems |
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7-3 |
Assumptions Used to Derive Power Requirements in Table 7-2 |
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7-4 |
Number of Bits Required to Transmit a Situation Report by Different Modalities |
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8-1 |
Research Objectives |
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B-1 |
Power and Energy Requirements of the Land Warrior System |
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B-2 |
Attack Mission Profile for the Laser Rangefinder |
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B-3 |
Wartime Operational Mode Summary for the Laser Rangefinder |
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C-1 |
Summary of Primary Battery Data |
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C-2 |
Summary of Rechargeable Portable Battery Data |
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C-3 |
Summary of Data on Reserve, Thermal, and High Temperature Batteries |
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C-4 |
Nickel Metal Hydride Battery Systems |
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C-5 |
Rechargeable Alkaline Manganese Dioxide (RAM) Battery Systems |
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C-6 |
Nickel Zinc (NiZn) Battery Systems |
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C-7 |
Lithium Batteries with Lithium Metal Anode Structures |
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C-8 |
Lithium Batteries with Lithium Intercalated Anode Structures |
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C-9 |
Lithium Batteries with Lithium Alloy Anode Structures |
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C-10 |
Lithium Batteries with Liquid Organic Electrolytes |
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C-11 |
Lithium Batteries with Polymer Gel Electrolytes |
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C-12 |
Lithium Batteries with Lithium Manganese Dioxide Spinel (LixMn2O4) Cathode Structures |
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C-13 |
Lithium Batteries with Lithium Nickel Dioxide (LixNiO2) Cathode Structures |
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C-14 |
Lithium Batteries Using Lithium Cobalt Dioxide (LixCoCO2) Cathode Structures |
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C-15 |
Battery Systems Not Appropriate for the Dismounted Soldier |
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C-16 |
Specific Energies of Various Fuels |
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C-17 |
Internal and External Combustion Engines |
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C-18 |
Weight Comparisons of 50-W Heat Engine Alternatives |
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C-19 |
Power Levels Required for Some Common Human Activities |
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C-20 |
Estimates of the Maximum Power Available for Conversion to Electricity from Several Body Sources |
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C-21 |
Summary of Photovoltaic Technology |
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C-22 |
Summary of Electrochemical Capacitor Technology |
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C-23 |
Most Promising Component Technologies for Hybrid Systems |
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C-24 |
High Specific Power Batteries for Hybrid Systems |
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C-25 |
Commercial and Developmental High Specific Energy-Batteries as Energy Sources in Hybrid Systems |
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C-26 |
Potential Fueled Systems for Hybrid Power Systems |
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C-27 |
Energy Storage Media That Could Be Used in Hybrid Systems |
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C-28 |
Technology Summary of Energy Systems |
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ACRONYMS
A/D
analog to digital
AAN
Army After Next
ACTD
advanced concept technology demonstrations
AMC
Army Materiel Command
AMCLD
active matrix liquid crystal display
AMEL
active matrix electroluminescent display
AMPS
advanced mobile phone system
AMTEC
alkali-metal-thermal-to electrical converter
APS
active pixel sensor
APU
auxiliary power unit
ARL
Army Research Laboratory
ARO
Army Research Office
ASIC
application-specific integrated circuits
AWE
advanced warfighting experiment
BSF
back surface fields
BSR
back surface reflectors
C4I
Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence
CAD
computer-aided design
CCD
charge coupled device
CDL
chemical double layer
CDMA
code division multiple access
CFM
contamination-free manufacturing
ChLCD
cholestric liquid crystal display
CIS
copper indium diselenide
CISC
complete instruction set computer
CMOS
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
COTS
commercial off-the-shelf
CPU
central processing unit
CRT
cathode ray tube
DARPA
Defense Advanced Research Products Agency
DBS
direct broadcast satellite
DC
direct current
DIICOE
Defense Information Infrastructure Common Operating Environment
DMFC
direct methanol fuel cell
DoD
U.S. Department of Defense
DoE
U.S. Department of Energy
DRAM
dynamic random access memory
DSP
digital signal processor
DVO
direct view optic
ESR
equivalent series resistance
EPR
equivalent parallel resistance
FDD
frequency division duplex
FET
field effect transistor
FM
frequency modulation
GPHS-RTG
general-purpose heat source-radioisotope thermal generator
GPS
global positioning system
GSI
gigascale integration
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications
GSO
geosynchronous orbit
HDTV
high-definition television
HF
high frequency
I/O
input/output
IC
integrated circuit
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IF
intermediate frequency
IHAS
integrated helmet assembly subsystem
IR
infrared
IS-54, -95
Interim Standard (Telecommunications Industry Association)
ISM
integrated sight module
LAN
local area network
LCD
liquid crystal display
LED
light emitting diode
LEO
low earth orbit
LPD
low probability of detection
LPI
low probability of intercept
MEMS
microelectromechanical systems
MOD-RTG
modified radioisotope thermal generator
MOSFET
metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
MOUT
military operations in urban terrain
MPEG2
Motion Picture Experts Group
Nd:YLF
neodymium: yttrium lithium fluoride
NMOS
N-type metal-oxide semiconductor
NRC
National Research Council
NTRS
National Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
OMS
operational mode summary
PACS
personal access communications systems
PAFC
phosphoric acid fuel cell
PACS-UB
PACS unlicensed B version
PC
personal computer
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PCS
personal communications systems
PDA
personal digital assistant
PEMFC
proton exchange membrane fuel cell
PMOS
P-type metal-oxide semiconductor
QPSK
quadrature phase shift keying
R&D
research and development
RAM
random access memory
RDEC
Research, Development and Engineering Center
RF
radio frequency
RIPD
remote input pointing/positioning device
SIA
Semiconductor Industry Association
SINCGARS
Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System
SNR
signal-to-noise ratio
SOI
silicon on insulator
SRAM
static random access memory
SSCOM
Soldier Systems Command
TCAD
technology computer-aided-design
TCIM
tactical communications interface module
TDD
time division duplex
TDMA
time division multiple access
TEC
thermoelectric cooler
TPV
thermophotovoltaics
TRADOC
Training and Doctrine Command
TSI
terascale integration
UAV
unmanned aerial vehicle
ULPE
ultra-low power electronics
VHF
very high frequency
VRD
virtual retinal display
ABBREVIATIONS
µ
micro
µm
micrometer
µW
microwatt
A
ampere
Ah
ampere hour
C
centigrade
cm
centimeter
cm2
square centimeter
cm3
cubic centimeter
dB
decibel
F
farad
g
gram
GHz
gigahertz
Hz
Hertz
in3
cubic inches
J
joule
K
Kelvin
kb
kilobit
kbps
kilobits per second
kHz
kilohertz
km
kilometer
kW
kilowatt
kWh
kilowatt-hour
l
liter
m3
cubic meter
Mb
megabit
Mbps
megabits per second
Mbytes
megabytes
mg
milligram
MHz
megahertz
MIPS
million instructions per second
mJ
millijoule
mm
millimeter
mm2
square millimeter
ms
millisecond
MV
megavolt
MW
megawatt
mW
milliwatt
nm
nanometer
pF
picofarad
ppm
parts per million
psi
pounds per square inch
V
volt
W
Watt
Wh
Watt hour
