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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings

An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors

Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert, and Licensing of Explosive Materials

Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology

Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1998

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This study was supported by Contract No. TATF-96-17 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of the Treasury. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Containing the threat from illegal bombings : an integrated national strategy for marking, tagging, rendering inert, and licensing explosives and their precursors / Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert, and Licensing of Explosive Materials, Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. )

ISBN 0-309-06126-1

1. Taggants. 2. Explosives industry—Licenses—United States. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert, and Licensing of Explosive Materials.

TP313.C65 1998

363.3′3—ddc21

98-19665

Cover: Background photograph courtesy of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms.

Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
(http://www.nap.edu) 2101 Constitution Ave., NW, Box 285 Washington, DC 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area)

Copyright 1998 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

COMMITTEE ON MARKING, RENDERING INERT, AND LICENSING OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

MARYE ANEE FOX,

University of Texas,

Co-chair

EDWARD M. ARNETT,

Duke University,

Co-chair

ALEXANDER BEVERIDGE,

Royal Canadian Mounted Police

ALAN L. CALNAN,

Southwestern University School of Law

TUNG-HO CHEN,

U.S. Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center

HERBERT S. ELEUTERIO,

National University of Singapore

WILLIAM M. HAYNES,

Monsanto Company

ROBERT B. HOPLER,

Powderman Consulting Inc.

ALEXANDER MacLACHLAN,

Department of Energy (retired)

LYLE O. MALOTKY,

Federal Aviation Administration

DAVID W. McCALL,

AT&T Bell Laboratories (retired)

DOUGLAS B. OLSON,

New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology

JIMMIE C. OXLEY,

University of Rhode Island and Gordon Research Conferences

ROBERT M. PENTZ,

Aerospace Corporation

ANTHONY J. SILVESTRI,

Mobil Research and Development Corporation (retired)

JUDITH BANNON SNOW,

Los Alamos National Laboratory

FRANK H. STILLINGER,

Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies

ANDREW E. TASLITZ,

Howard University School of Law

Liaison Members

JOHN J. WISE,

Mobil Research and Development Corporation (retired) (Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology)

EDWARD C. DOWLING,

Cyprus Amax Minerals Company (National Materials Advisory Board)

Project Staff

DOUGLAS J. RABER, Study Director and Director,

Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology (BCST)

ROBERT SCHAFRIK, Director,

National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB)

GREG EYRING, Consultant,

NMAB

SANDRA HYLAND, Senior Program Officer,

NMAB

DAVID GRANNIS, Project Assistant (from September 1997),

BCST

RYANNE J. MAYERSAK, Research Assistant (November 1996 through July 1997),

BCST

TRACY D. WILSON, Senior Program Officer,

BCST

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

BOARD ON CHEMICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

LARRY OVERMAN,

University of California at Irvine,

Co-chair

JOHN J. WISE,

Mobil Research and Development Corporation (retired),

Co-chair

HANS C. ANDERSEN,

Stanford University

JOHN L. ANDERSON,

Carnegie Mellon University

DAVID C. BONNER,

Westlake Group

PHILIP H. BRODSKY,

Monsanto Company

GREGORY R. CHOPPIN,

Florida State University

BARBARA J. GARRISON,

Pennsylvania State University

LOUIS C. GLASGOW,

E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company

JOSEPH G. GORDON II,

IBM Almaden Research Center

ROBERT H. GRUBBS,

California Institute of Technology

KEITH E. GUBBINS,

Cornell University

VICTORIA F. HAYNES,

B.F. Goodrich Company

JIRI JONAS,

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

GARY E. MCGRAW,

Eastman Chemical Company

GREGORY A. PETSKO,

Brandeis University

WAYNE H. PITCHER, JR.,

Genencor Corporation

PETER J. STANG,

University of Utah

JOAN S. VALENTINE,

University of California at Los Angeles

WILLIAM J. WARD III,

General Electric Company

JOHN T. YATES, JR.,

University of Pittsburgh

Staff

DOUGLAS J. RABER, Director

TRACY D. WILSON, Senior Program Officer

DAVID GRANNIS, Project Assistant

MARIA P. JONES, Senior Project Assistant

RUTH McDIARMID, Senior Program Officer

CHRISTOPHER K. MURPHY, Program Officer

SYBIL A. PAIGE, Administrative Associate

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS

ROBERT J. HERMANN,

United Technologies Corporation,

Co-chair

W. CARL LINEBERGER,

University of Colorado,

Co-chair

PETER M. BANKS,

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan

WILLIAM BROWDER,

Princeton University

LAWRENCE D. BROWN,

University of Pennsylvania

RONALD G. DOUGLAS,

Texas A&M University

JOHN E. ESTES,

University of California at Santa Barbara

MARTHA HAYNES,

Cornell University

L. LOUIS HEGEDUS,

Elf Atochem North America Inc.

JOHN E. HOPCROFT,

Cornell University

CAROL M. JANTZEN,

Westinghouse Savannah River Company

PAUL G. KAMINSKI,

Technovation Inc.

KENNETH H. KELLER,

University of Minnesota

KENNETH I. KELLERMANN,

National Radio Astronomy Observatory

MARGARET G. KIVELSON,

University of California at Los Angeles

DANIEL KLEPPNER,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

JOHN KREICK,

Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company

MARSHA I. LESTER,

University of Pennsylvania

NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS,

Brookhaven National Laboratory

CHANG-LIN TIEN,

University of California at Berkeley

NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

Preface

The Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert, and Licensing of Explosive Materials (see Appendix A) was appointed by the National Research Council (NRC) to address four basic areas: (a) the viability of adding tracer elements to explosives for the purpose of detection, (b) the viability of adding tracer elements to explosives for the purpose of identification, (c) the feasibility and practicability of rendering inert common chemicals used to manufacture explosive materials, and (d) the feasibility and practicability of imposing controls on certain precursor chemicals used to manufacture explosive materials. (See Appendix B for a detailed statement of task.) As part of these tasks, the committee considered risks to human life or safety, utility for law enforcement, effects on the quality and reliability of the explosive materials for their intended lawful use, potential effects on the environment, and the cost-effectiveness of these approaches.

The study focused on issues in science and technology, with the goal being to frame the issues and furnish a report that provides a clear description of the technical options that exist to contain the threat from illegal bombings. The committee's final report of the results of this study provides advice to officials of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms on which to base recommendations to Congress. It also sets forth findings obtained as a result of consultation with other federal, state, and local officials, regulated industry members, and fertilizer research centers. An interim report, published in May 1997 (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.), described progress to date and summarized workshop presentations concerning current developments and critical issues in marking or tagging explosive materials for the purposes of detection or identifi-

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

cation. This final report supersedes the interim report and presents the committee's conclusions and recommendations.

In its initial meetings, the committee received a number of briefings (see Appendix C) and held subsequent deliberations. These presentations are summarized in Appendixes D and E. The committee is grateful to the many individuals who provided technical information and insight during these briefings. This information represented a sound foundation on which the committee based its work. The committee solicited input from the scientific community and affected stakeholders on the issues delineated in the committee's charge and considered all such sources of information throughout the study.

This study was conducted under the auspicies of the NRC's Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology with technical insight and assistance provided by the NRC's National Materials Advisory Board and its staff. The committee acknowledges this support. The co-chairs are also particularly grateful to the members of this committee, who worked diligently and effectively on a demanding schedule to produce this report.

Marye Anne Fox and Edward M. Arnett, Co-chairs

Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert, and Licensing of Explosive Materials

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

Acknowledgments

This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC's) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The contents of the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:

Peter Banks, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan,

Randy Becker, Los Angeles Police Department,

Charles H. Bennett, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center,

John F. Braley, Dow Chemical Company,

Nick Cartwright, Royal Canadian Mounted Police,

William C. Davis, Los Alamos National Laboratory,

Richard L. Garwin, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center,

Claude Merrill, Air Force Phillips Laboratory,

Hyla Napadensky, Napadensky Energetics Inc. (retired),

Larry E. Overman, University of California at Irvine,

Susan Poulter, University of Utah,

Mark J. Raabe, Merck & Co. Inc.,

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

Jean-Michel Rendu, Newmont Gold Company,

Paul Rydlund, El Dorado Chemical, and

Peter Sharfman, MITRE Corporation.

Although the individuals listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring committee and the NRC.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×

4

 

RENDERING EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS INERT

 

97

   

Introduction,

 

97

   

Ammonium Nitrate in Mining and Agriculture,

 

99

   

Rendering Bulk Ammonium Nitrate Inert,

 

103

   

Research and Testing Needed,

 

108

   

Legal Issues,

 

110

   

Conclusions and Recommendations,

 

112

5

 

LIMITING CRIMINAL ACCESS TO EXPLOSIVES AND PRECURSOR CHEMICALS

 

117

   

Introduction,

 

117

   

Controls on Purchase and Use of Commercial Explosives in the United States and Abroad,

 

118

   

Common Precursor Chemicals Potentially Subject to Controls—Developing a Short List,

 

126

   

Potential Models for Control of Explosives Precursors,

 

132

   

Recommended Controls on Short-list Precursor Chemicals at Various Threat Levels,

 

142

   

Legal Issues,

 

153

   

Conclusions and Recommendations,

 

155

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

159

 

 

APPENDIXES

 

 

   

A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members

 

167

   

B Statement of Task

 

173

   

C Committee Meetings

 

177

   

D Summary of Presentations and Materials from Marker and Taggant Vendors

 

182

   

E Summary of Presentations and Materials from Nonfederal Stakeholders

 

191

   

F Summary of European Site Visit

 

198

   

G An Analysis of the Legal Issues Attendant to the Marking, Inerting, or Regulation of Explosive Materials
Alan L. Calnan and Andrew E. Taslitz

 

215

   

H Test to Evaluate Detonability

 

341

   

I Laboratories Capable of Testing

 

344

   

J Probabilistic Aspects of Taggant Recovery

 

347

   

K Criteria for Ranking Common Explosive Chemicals

 

352

   

L ''Be Aware for America" Survey

 

356

   

M Components of Explosive Systems

 

359

   

N Glossary

 

363

   

O Acronyms and Abbreviations

 

369

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1998. Containing the Threat from Illegal Bombings: An Integrated National Strategy for Marking, Tagging, Rendering Inert, and Licensing Explosives and Their Precursors. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5966.
×
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In response to the rising concern of the American public over illegal bombings, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms asked the National Research Council to examine possible mechanisms for reducing this threat. The committee examined four approaches to reducing the bombing threat: addition of detection markers to explosives for pre-blast detection, addition of identification taggants to explosives for post-blast identification of bombers, possible means to render common explosive materials inert, and placing controls on explosives and their precursors. The book makes several recommendations to reduce the number of criminal bombings in this country.

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