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Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998)

Chapter: M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects

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Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
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M
Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects

Animal models of neural tube defect (NTD) have been examined and manipulated to elucidate the mechanisms of abnormal neurulation and to test etiologic hypotheses suggested by human epidemiological data. Neurulation in mouse and in human embryos appears to be quite similar, at least anatomically, whereas neurulation in the chick embryo differs in several ways. Neural tube closure is a complex and incompletely understood morphogenetic process. The neural plate arises from the embryonic ectoderm, a layer of epithelium held together laterally by cell adhesion molecules and basally by a basement membrane. Neurulation results from both proliferation and change in shape of these neurectoderm cells: change in cell shape results in elevation of the neural folds and cell proliferation results in their elongation. Extracellular matrix deposition apparently maintains this change in tissue form (Copp and Bernfield, 1994).

Most studies have used the mouse because it provides the best compromise of developmental similarity and ease of genetic and environmental manipulation. However, NTD phenotypes in the mouse are varied and none resembles the human in every respect. Moreover, the mechanism of action of any suspected human NTD gene will need to be investigated in animal models, such as mouse models containing induced mutations in the corresponding mouse gene or mice of appropriate genetic background that contain a mutation in the suspect gene.

Numerous mouse genetic models now exist and include sponta-

Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
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neous mutants (at least 13 models, 3 of which have been shown to be due to a specific gene) as well as an increasing list of induced genetic mutants in which the resultant NTD phenotype was often unexpected (Copp and Bernfield, 1994). Most of the models exhibit isolated exencephaly (an anencephaly equivalent in the mouse) and some show solely posterior NTD (Copp and Bernfield, 1994), but most are associated with malformations outside the central nervous system, growth retardation, or both. One model, the curly tail mouse, shows NTD as its sole defect (Gruneberg, 1954). Curly tail mice exhibit both anterior and posterior NTDs, which can closely resemble the common forms of human NTD (Seller and Adinolfi, 1981). As in humans, there is incomplete (60 percent) penetrance, which varies with genetic background. This suggests the presence of modifier genes, one of which has been genetically mapped (Letts et al., 1995).

NUTRITION STUDIES

Several nutritional deprivations can produce NTDs in rodents (Hurley, 1980). For example, zinc deficiency in rats results in 47 percent of offspring with NTDs (Hurley and Shrader, 1972). Severe folate deficiency, induced by dietary depletion together with gut sterilization to reduce microbial sources of folate (Walzern et al., 1983), does not yield NTDs in mice (Heid et al., 1992). However, these studies have not been done in genetic NTD models. One mouse model shows reduced neural abnormalities with huge folic acid supplements (2.5 to 3.0 mg/kg of body weight/day) (Zhao et al., 1996). Despite many other attempts, folate supplementation has not been associated with changes in NTD incidence in rodent models, including the curly tail mouse model (Seller, 1994). Because evidence suggests a genetic basis for erythrocyte folate values in humans (Mitchell et al., 1997), significant interspecies differences are conceivable. Further study is needed to determine whether mice handle folate more efficiently than humans and whether they have a lower threshold for folate sufficiency.

Supplementation with other nutrients can reduce the incidence of NTDs in some rodent models. Methionine supplements reduce the incidence of rat embryo NTD induced by homocysteine in culture (Vanaerts et al., 1994). The axial-defects mouse mutant shows a reduction in posterior NTD penetrance after parenteral methionine in the pregnant dam at the onset of neural tube closure; however, large doses of folic acid and vitamin B12 were without effect (Essien, 1992). Inositol administration can reduce NTD incidence in the

Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
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curly tail mouse model (Greene and Copp, 1997). If curly tail is a suitable mouse model of human NTD, markers of inositol status should be evaluated with regard to human NTDs.

TERATOLOGY STUDIES

Many teratogens produce NTDs in rodents; exencephaly is especially common. Examples include ethanol, retinoic acid, vitamin A, and valproate (Sulik and Sadler, 1993). The NTD phenotype depends on the timing of administration. Early administration (before closure of the anterior neural tube at mouse embryonic day 9) most often results in exencephaly whereas later administration yields posterior defects. Valproate-induced NTDs are strain specific in the mouse (Finnell et al., 1988), highlighting the importance of genetic predisposition in NTD etiology. Although some studies show an alteration in folate levels (Hendel et al., 1984) and a protective effect of coadministered folic acid in valproate-induced NTD (Trotz et al., 1987), the metabolic mechanism of valproate teratogenesis is unclear (Nau, 1994).

In humans, carbamazepine is a commonly used antiepileptic drug that has been reported to cause NTDs at a higher-than-normal rate (Rosa, 1991). The absolute risk estimated from 21 cohort studies is approximately 1 percent (Rosa, 1991).

REFERENCES

Copp AJ, Bernfield M. 1994. Etiology and pathogenesis of human neural tube defects: Insights from mouse models. Curr Opin Pediatr 6:624–631.


Essien FB. 1992. Maternal methionine supplementation promotes the remediation of axial defects in Axd mouse neural tube mutants. Teratology 45:205–212.


Finnell RH, Bennett GD, Karras SB, Mohl VK. 1988. Common hierachies of susceptibility to the induction of neural tube defects in mouse embryos by valproic acid and its 4-propyl-4-pentenoic acid metabolite. Teratology 38:313–320.


Greene ND, Copp AJ. 1997. Inositol prevents folate-resistant neural tube defects in the mouse. Nat Med 3:60–66.

Gruneberg H. 1954. Genetical studies on the skeleton of the mouse. 8. Curly tail. J Genet 52:52–67.


Heid MK, Bills ND, Hinrichs SH, Clifford AJ. 1992. Folate deficiency alone does not produce neural tube defects in mice. J Nutr 122:888–894.

Hendel J, Dam M, Gram L, Winkel P, Jorgensen I. 1984. The effects of carbamazepine and valproate on folate metabolism in man. Acta Neurol Scand 69:226–231.

Hurley LS. 1980. Developmental Nutrition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hurley LS, Shrader RE. 1972. Congenital malformations of the nervous system in zinc-deficient rats. Int Rev Neurobiol Suppl 1:7–51.

Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
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Letts VA, Schork NJ, Copp AJ, Bernfield M, Frankel WN. 1995. A curly-tail modifier locus, mct 1, on mouse chromosome 17. Genomics 29:719–724.


Mitchell LE, Duffy DL, Duffy P, Bellingham G, Martin NG. 1997. Genetic effects on variation in red-blood-cell folate in adults: Implications for the familial aggregation of neural tube defects. Am J Hum Genet 60:433–438.


Nau H. 1994. Valproic acid-induced neural tube defects. In: Bock G, Marsh J, eds. Neural Tube Defects. Ciba Foundation Symposium 181. London: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 144–151.


Rosa FW. 1991. Spina bifida in infants of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 324:674–677.


Seller MJ. 1994. Vitamins, folic acid and the cause and prevention of neural tube defects. In: Bock G, Marsh J, eds. Neural Tube Defects. Ciba Foundation Symposium 181. London: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 161–172.

Seller MJ, Adinolfi M. 1981. The curly tail mouse: An experimental model for human neural tube defects. Life Sci 29:1607–1615.

Sulik KK, Sadler TW. 1993. Postulated mechanisms underlying the development of neural tube defects. Insights from in vitro and in vivo studies. Ann NY Acad Sci 678:8–21.


Trotz M, Wegner C, Nau H. 1987. Valproic acid-induced neural tube defects: Reduction by folinic acid in the mouse. Life Sci 41:103–110.


Vanaerts LA, Blom HJ, Deabreu RA, Trijbels FJ, Eskes TK, Copius Peereboom-Stegeman JH, Noordhoek J. 1994. Prevention of neural tube defects by and toxicity of L-homocysteine in cultured postimplantation rat embryos. Teratology 50:348–360.


Walzern RL, Clifford CK, Clifford AJ. 1983. Folate deficiency in rats fed amino acid diets. J Nutr 113:421–429.


Zhao Q, Behringer RR, de Crombrugghe B. 1996. Prenatal folic acid treatment suppresses acrania and meroanencephaly in mice mutant for the Cart 1 homeobox gene. Nat Genet 13:275–283.

Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
×
Page 523
Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
×
Page 524
Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
×
Page 525
Suggested Citation:"M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects." Institute of Medicine. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/6015.
×
Page 526
Next: N Estimation of the Period Covered by Vitamin B12 Stores »
Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline Get This Book
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Since 1941, Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) has been recognized as the most authoritative source of information on nutrient levels for healthy people. Since publication of the 10th edition in 1989, there has been rising awareness of the impact of nutrition on chronic disease. In light of new research findings and a growing public focus on nutrition and health, the expert panel responsible for formulation RDAs reviewed and expanded its approach—the result: Dietary Reference Intakes.

This new series of references greatly extends the scope and application of previous nutrient guidelines. For each nutrient the book presents what is known about how the nutrient functions in the human body, what the best method is to determine its requirements, which factors (caffeine or exercise, for example) may affect how it works, and how the nutrient may be related to chronic disease.

This volume of the series presents information about thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline.

Based on analysis of nutrient metabolism in humans and data on intakes in the U.S. population, the committee recommends intakes for each age group—from the first days of life through childhood, sexual maturity, midlife, and the later years. Recommendations for pregnancy and lactation also are made, and the book identifies when intake of a nutrient may be too much. Representing a new paradigm for the nutrition community, Dietary Reference Intakes encompasses:

  • Estimated Average Requirements (EARs). These are used to set Recommended Dietary Allowances.
  • Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). Intakes that meet the RDA are likely to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all individuals in a life-stage and gender group.
  • Adequate Intakes (AIs). These are used instead of RDAs when an EAR cannot be calculated. Both the RDA and the AI may be used as goals for individual intake.
  • Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). Intakes below the UL are unlikely to pose risks of adverse health effects in healthy people.

This new framework encompasses both essential nutrients and other food components thought to pay a role in health, such as dietary fiber. It incorporates functional endpoints and examines the relationship between dose and response in determining adequacy and the hazards of excess intake for each nutrient.

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