Index
A
Abortions, spontaneous, 193
Activated carbon.
See Granular activated carbon (GAC)
Activated sludge process, 21, 25, 91-92, 104
Acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI), reports of, 77, 83
Adsorption/desorption processes, 61-63
Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) plants, 25, 30, 47-50, 53, 68, 241
See also Wastewater;
Water treatment;
Water treatment facilities
emergency response plans at, 52
Advanced-oxidation processes.
See Oxidation processes
Aeromonas, 87-88
Agencies.
See Regulatory issues;
Water agencies
Agricultural chemicals, 4-5
AIDS patients, chronic diarrhea in, 87
Air stripping processes, 49, 236
Algae control, 25
Alkylphenol ethoxylate, 180
Alkylphenoxy ethoxycarboxylates (APDCs), 64
Alkylphenoxypoly ethoxylates (APnEOs), 64-67
Alkylphenylpoly ethoxycarboxylates (APnECs), 66-67
Alternative disposal routes.
See Water disposal
Ambient water
microbial contaminants in, 92-93
mixing reclaimed water with, 2
Amebic dysentery, 79
American Public Health Association, 229
American Water Works Association, 209
Analytical tools, developing new, 61-63
Anthropogenic contaminants, 4, 17-19, 227
Aquatic humus, 4
Aquifers, injecting wastewater into, 2, 4, 22, 24
Arizona.
See also Salt River Valley
Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ), 41-42
Department of Water Resources (ADWR), 41-42
water reuse regulations in, 31, 41-42, 96-97, 120
Artificial recharge.
See Ground water
Assessment.
See Health and safety testing;
Risk assessment
Authorities, 12.
See also Public health concerns;
Regulatory issues;
Water agencies
AWT.
See Advanced wastewater treatment
B
Bacterial pathogens, 6.
See also individual bacteria
aquatic, possible concern about, 87-88
enteric, 77-79
list of, 75
markers for, 6
microscopy for, 123
Barriers
defined, 208
independence of, evaluating, 12, 110-111, 209-211, 236
providing multiple, 12, 208-213, 236
securing data about, 6-7
Baseline testing, 183-187
Basin overdraft, 25
Bias, sources of, 149, 152-154
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 21
carbonaceous (CBOD), 39
Biological agents.
See Microbial contaminants in reuse systems
Biomarkers, 149-150
Biomolecular assessment, 7, 129-131, 154
Birth defects, 16
Blue Plains Wastewater Treatment Plant, 27, 165
Blue-green algae, 88
Breakthroughs.
See Contaminant breakthroughs
Bromates, removing, 54
Buffers.
See Environmental buffers
C
California.
See also Los Angeles County;
Orange County;
Palo Alto treatment system;
San Diego's Total Resources Recovery Project
Department of Health Services, 38, 234-235
viral studies in, 100
wastewater reclamation criteria, 31, 36-38, 218
culturing for, 77
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD), monitoring, 39
Carcinogenicity, 16, 136, 141-142, 154, 185, 198-199
of chlorinated water, 11, 150, 173
Case-control studies, 147, 152-153
Causal relationships.
See Etiological agents, detecting
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 77, 232-233
Certifying operators for water treatment facilities, 13, 235-236, 238
Chemical contaminants, 3-6, 45-71.
See also Organic compounds
managing input to reuse systems, 5, 50-53
Chemical disinfection processes, 107-108
See also Chlorination processes;
Coagulation processes;
Oxidation processes;
Ozone processes
using along with physical treatment, 6
Chemical evaluation, ix, 3-4, 9, 68-69
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), reducing, 53
Chlorination processes, 5, 25, 70, 97
See also Disinfection by-products (DBPs)
Chromosomal abnormalities, 16
Clarification.
See Lime clarification
Clastogenicity, 16
Clean Water Act, 51
Clostridilum perfringens, 7, 90, 95
as indicator bacterium, 127-128, 155
Coagulation processes, 17, 22, 236
with ferric chloride, 29
Coastal aquifers, injecting wastewater into, 22, 24-25
Cohort studies, 147-148, 153, 204
Coliform bacteria, 20
monitoring, 39, 89-90, 108-109, 118-119
standards for, 83
Coliphage virus, 128
Colorado.
See Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project
Composites, flow-proportioned, 224
Concentrating trace organic compounds, 61-63
uncertainties introduced by, 179-180
Confounding bias, 154
Consequence-frequency assessment, 219-222
of advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) facilities, 241-247
Consumer groups, involving, 13
Contaminant breakthroughs, 12, 223
preventing, 237
Contaminants.
See also Anthropogenic contaminants;
Chemical contaminants;
Contaminant breakthroughs;
Heavy metals;
Microbial contaminants;
Monitoring programs;
and individual contaminants
characterizing, 10-11, 59, 156, 203
reduced through natural processes, 17-18, 92-93, 214-217
unidentified, 58-69, 182, 227-229
Continuous monitoring, 8-9
Continuous toxicological testing, 9-10
Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, 229
Co-precipitation, 62
Cost considerations, 10, 138, 180-181, 202, 224
Cryptosporidium, 77, 79, 82-86, 90, 96-99, 109-111, 119-120, 149, 210, 232-234
infectivity of, 131-134
need for data on, 96
testing for, 77
Cyanobacteria, 88
Cyclospora cayetanensis, 82-83, 86-87
Cytopathic effect (CPE), 119, 127
D
Data.
See Microbial data
DBPs.
See Disinfection by-products
Decision-making.
See Water agencies
Degradation of samples over time, 179
Degraded water supplies.
See Water supplies
Demand.
See Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD);
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD);
Chemical oxygen demand (COD);
Water demand
Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project, 9, 26-27, 48-50, 102-103, 166, 169-170, 178-180
Detection
of emerging pathogens, 7
of etiological agents, 84
microbial methods of, 120-129
Detergent breakdown products, 64-67
Diarrhea, 82, 191-192, 232-233
"Brainerd diarrhea," 84
chronic, in AIDS patients, 87
Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy, 125
Dilution, 215
Dioxin, 179
Direct potable water reuse, 1, 21
Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project.
See Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project
Discharges.
See Wastewater
Diseases, 150.
See also Microbial contaminants in reuse systems;
Waterborne diseases;
and individual diseases and pathogens
measuring incidence of, 151
outbreaks of, 82, 86-87, 95, 208-210, 230
Disinfection by-products (DBPs)
managing in reuse systems, 53-58
potential dangers from, 5
Disinfection processes, 17, 236.
See also Chlorination processes;
Oxidation processes;
Ozone processes;
Ultraviolet light (UV) processes
Disposal.
See Water disposal
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 58
Distribution.
See Water distribution
District of Columbia.
See Potomic Estuary Experimental Wastewater Treatment Plant
Documenting chemical inputs, 4-5, 69
Dose-response curves, 130-131, 197
Drinking water.
See also Water standards
sources of, 17-18
judging new, 182-183
searching out, 3
selecting, 16-18
Drinking Water National Contaminant Occurrence Data Base, 7-8, 155
E
Early warning provisions, 13, 230
Ecologic studies.
See Epidemiological evaluation
Effluent, primary and secondary, microbial contaminants in, 90-92
Elderly.
See Sensitive populations
Emergencies.
See also Response measures
short-term, providing for, 16, 52
Emerging microbial contaminants, 6, 84-87, 110
detecting, 7
list of, 80-83
Endocrine disrupters, 68-69, 180, 187
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, 119
Entamoeba histolytica, 79
Enteric pathogens, 74-77
bacterial, 77-79
list of, 75
protozoan, 79-82
viral, 80-83, 85, 96-99, 109-111
Enterococci, 89
as indicator bacterium, 127-128
Enterocytozoon bieneusi, 87
Enteroviruses.
See Enteric pathogens, viral
Environmental buffers, in reuse systems, 12, 211, 214-217, 237
health benefits of, 219
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 7, 27, 51, 77, 129
providing guidelines, 5, 31-35, 56, 227, 237
Epidemiological evaluation, 3-4
recommendations concerning, 203-204
studies using, 11-12, 146-148, 190
Error, sources of, 152-154
Escherichia coli, 77-78, 128, 232
reporting, 234-235
Estrogenic response, 184-186
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 59, 64
Etiological agents, detecting, 84, 148, 157
Evaluation, of contaminants, 118-157
Evaporation, low temperature, 61-62
Event chain analysis, 220-222
Excreta, human, 19
See also Coliform bacteria
Experimentation.
See Evaluation;
Health and safety testing;
Pilot plant studies
Exposure assessment, 148-149
biomarkers of, 149-150
Exposure characterization, 131-135, 146
Extrapolating test results to human risks, 143-145
F
False negatives, 8, 126, 203-204
False positives, 126
Fecal coliform bacteria.
See Coliform bacteria;
Escherichia coli
Fecal-oral route of infection, 74
absence of enforceable, 42
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 140
Filtration.
See also Membrane filtration processes;
Sand filtration processes;
Trickling filtration process;
Ultrafiltration
sentinel parameters for, 222
Fish test, 9-10, 157, 182-189, 202
disadvantages of, 184
operational considerations, 10, 187-189
Flocculation, organic, 126
Florida.
See also St. Petersburg reclamation facility;
Tampa Water Resource Recovery Project
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), 41
water reuse requirements, 31, 38-41
Flow-proportioned composites, 224
Fluorescence.
See Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) assessment
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 140
Fred Hervey Water Reclamation Plant, 28
Free chlorine.
See Chlorination processes
G
GAC.
See Granular activated carbon
Genetic polymorphisms, 150
Genotoxicity, 156
Giardia, 76-77, 79, 82, 86, 90, 93, 96-99, 109-111, 119-120
infectivity of, 131-134
need for data on, 96
reporting, 235
testing for, 77
Glutathione S-transferase theta 1
(GSTT1) gene, 150
Granular activated carbon (GAC), 22, 25, 30, 172, 236
residue analyses of, 60-61
Grit removal, 21
Ground Water Recharge Using Waters of Impaired Quality, 118
Guidelines.
See Drinking water;
Federal guidelines;
and individual guidelines and states
H
Haloacetic acids (HAAs), removing, 53-57
Haloacetonitriles, removing, 54
Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) methods, 222
Health and safety testing, 3, 7-9, 118-157.
See also Fish test
biomolecular methods, 8
chemical methods, 8-9
comparative approach to, 16, 63-64
consequence-frequency approach to, 219-222, 241-247
extrapolating results to human risks, 143-145
false negatives in, 8, 126, 203-204
integrated approach to, 176-180
microbiological methods, 7-8
new approaches to, 182-183
Health maintenance organizations, data from, 232, 234
See also Health and safety testing
controlling adequately, 4
and population mobility, 199-200
Heavy metals, removing, 21-22, 47
Helicobacter pylori, 80-81, 85-87
Helminths, 79
list of, 75
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), 77-78
Hepatitis E virus, 84
Hospitals, data from, 234
Human epidemiologic studies, 145
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 87
Human risks.
See also Sensitive populations
extrapolating test results to, 135, 143-145
Humus.
See Aquatic humus
Hyacinths.
See Water hyacinths
I
Identification studies, 9, 173-174
Identifying health risks, ix.
See also Health and safety testing
Immune systems, people with suppressed.
See Sensitive populations
Immunomagnetic separation (IMS) techniques, 126
In vitro testing
appropriate uses of, 10, 137-138, 141
limitations of, 8-9, 142-143, 201-202
advantages of, 10
limitations of, 8-9
Indian Health Service, 234
Indicator microorganisms, 7, 90, 127-129
in fresh waters, 95
in secondary effluent, 94
Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) assessment, 125-126
Indirect potable water reuse, 20-21
unplanned, 17-18
Industrial chemicals, 4
dealing with spills of, 52
Industrial pretreatment programs, 5
Infectious disease agents.
See Microbial contaminants in reuse systems;
and individual pathogens
Infiltration of water, rapid, 39-40
Information Collection Rule (ICR) of the EPA, 7, 96, 120
See also Ground water
fate of, 25
Inorganic chemical contaminants, 4
salts, 136
Instability, biological.
See Wastewater
Integrated toxicological testing, 9-10
Intrusion of seawater, 25, 27-28
Ion exchange processes, 236
Isolating trace organic compounds, 61-63
Isospora belli, 87
L
Lag time following upstream wastewater discharges, 12, 217-218
Lake storage, 2
Latency, prolonged, 151-152, 200
Legionella, 76
sentinel parameters for, 222
Live animal test systems, 9, 144.
See also Fish test
Longitudinal studies, 147-148
Long-term health risks.
See Health risks
Los Angeles County.
See also Montebello Forebay project;
Whittier Narrows Water Reclamation Plant (WRP)
County Sanitation Districts (CSDLACs) of, 51
epidemiological studies in, 164-166, 169, 174-175, 192-200
generalizability of findings, 11
organic contaminants analyzed, 50-52, 58
Loss of identity of upstream wastewater discharges, 8, 218-219
M
Macroreticular resins, 61-63
Mammalian cell transformation assay, 165, 170-171
Management.
See Water management;
Water treatment facilities
See also Water storage;
Water treatment
Markers.
See also Biomarkers
for bacterial pathogens, 6
for wastewaters, 64
Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), 50, 129
See also National Primary Drinking Water Maximum Contaminant Levels
Maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 179, 181
Measuring outcomes, 10-11, 150-152, 195-196
Medaka (fish), 184
Membrane filtration processes, x, 17, 61-62, 236
more research needed on, 8, 156
using chemical disinfectants along with, 6
Metals.
See Heavy metals
Methods for assessing health risks.
See Health risks
Microbial assessment, 3-4, 7, 129-131
improved, 76
studies using, 100-101
Microbial contaminants in reuse systems, 3-4, 6-7, 74-112
See also individual pathogens
in ambient waters, 92-93
in primary and secondary effluent, 90-92
protecting public from, 12, 236
unidentified, 84-87
in untreated wastewater, 89-90
Microbial data, 93-108
needed from reuse project managers, 6
from non-potable applications, 96-101
from potable applications, 101-108
Microbial detection methods, 120-129
Micronucleus test, 170-171
Microscopy, 123
differential interference contrast (DIC), 125
Microsporidia, 87
Misclassification bias, 153, 200
Mobility of populations, 199-200
Molecular techniques, 124
Monitoring programs, 3-4
continuous, 8-9
in conventional water systems, 6
routine, 223-224
strategies for, 224
for treatment effectiveness, 5-6, 70, 222-227
Montebello Forebay project, 165-166, 192-194
Mortality and morbidity data, 195-197
MTD.
See Maximum tolerated dose
N
National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 17
National Primary Drinking Water Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs), 41-42
National Research Council (NRC), 1, 11, 15-16, 118, 129, 136, 140-141, 178
Natural inactivation, 93
Natural organic matter (NOM), 4, 59, 227-228.
decomposibility of, 21
difficulty analyzing, 4, 58-59
hydrophilic fraction of, 63
metabolic pathways for degradation of, 63
Natural processes, reducing contaminants through, 17-18, 92-93, 214-217
Natural surface water, 7
New York Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), 233
Nitrogen, removing, 46-47
Nonionic detergents, risks in reuse systems, 64-67
Nonpotable water reuse, 3, 14, 96-101
O
Obligate human pathogens.
See Viral pathogens
Occupational exposures, 147, 152
Operators, training and certifying.
See Water treatment facilities
Orange County.
See also Water Factory 21
health-effect studies in, 52-54, 164-165, 169, 174-175, 192-200
Orange County Water District (OCWD), 25, 101
Organic compounds, trace, 49
See also Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
Natural organic matter (NOM)
Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs)
Total organic carbon (TOC)
concentrating, 61-63
unidentified, 4, 5, 9, 55, 58-70, 135-136
Organic flocculation, 126
Osmosis.
See Reverse osmosis (RO) processes
Outcomes measurement, 10-11, 150-152, 195-196
Overdrafting, 25
advanced, 236
Ozone processes, 6, 30, 53, 177, 236
effectiveness for protozoa removal, 108
sentinel parameters for, 222
P
Palo Alto treatment system, 52, 54
Parameters.
See Sentinel parameters
Parasites.
See Protozoan parasites
Pathogens.
See Microbial contaminants;
and individual pathogens
Percolation processes, 37-38
maintaining proper conditions for, 28
surface, 27
Phosphates, removing, 46-47
Physical treatment.
See Primary water treatment
Pilot plant studies.
See Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project;
San Diego's Total Resources Recovery Project
Pollutant source control programs, 5, 50-51
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 179
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 123-124
Populations
mobility of, 199-200
sensitive. See Sensitive populations
Potable water reuse.
See Direct potable water reuse;
Indirect potable water reuse;
Nonpotable water reuse
advanced treatment for, 101-108
and current drinking water standards, 18-20
planning for.
See Proposed potable reuse projects
safeguards needed, 14
Potomic Estuary Experimental Wastewater Treatment Plant, 16, 26-27, 53-54, 102-103, 164-165, 168, 176
Precipitation.
See Co-precipitation
Preliminary screening, 21
Pretreatment programs, 5, 21, 30
Primary and secondary effluent, microbial contaminants in, 90-92
Primary water treatment, 21
Process trains.
See Treatment trains
Proposed potable reuse projects, 4-5, 111-112
managing, 6
plant-by-plant reviews, 9
Protozoan parasites, 6.
See also individual parasites
enteric, diseases from, 79-82
increased danger from, 6
list of, 75
microscopy for, 123
need for data about, 7
rate of removal by natural processes, 8, 155
Public health concerns over reclaiming water, 1, 3-4, 12
evolving over time, 179
importance of considering, 1, 6, 16
surveillance programs addressing, 12-13, 145, 229-238
Q
Quality assurance issues.
See Water quality
Quality Criteria for Water Reuse, 1, 11, 16, 136, 141, 178
Quality spectrum, 19
R
Raw water supplies, quality spectrum of, 19
Recall bias, 153-154
Recharging.
See Ground water
Reclaimed water, 14-71
See also Potable water reuse;
Reuse systems;
Water reclamation projects
defining, 15
objections to use of, 18
public health implications of, 1
safety evaluations of, 135-136
solution of last resort, 3, 15
types of, 20-25
unidentified organic compounds in, 58-69
Recommendations, 4-13, 69-71, 109-112, 154-157, 201-204, 236-238
major, 3-4
Regulatory issues, 9
See also Drinking water;
Federal guidelines;
Water standards;
and individual regulations
Rejection of water
See Water disposal
Reliability issues, 3-4, 12-13, 15, 208-238, 243
importance of, 135
and performance evaluation, 3-4, 222-227
securing data about, 6
Reproductive outcomes, 16, 193, 200-201
Research needed, 4, 7-8, 55, 110
Reservoirs for storage, 2
Resins.
See Macroreticular resins
Response measures, 52, 225-226
Reuse systems.
See also Nonpotable water reuse;
Potable water reuse;
Proposed potable reuse projects;
Water reclamation projects;
Water treatment facilities
chemical contaminants in, 45-71
environmental buffers in, 211, 214-217
health-effect studies of, 164-204
microbial contaminants in, 74-112
reliability and quality in, 208-238
Reused water.
See Reclaimed water
Reverse osmosis (RO) processes, 22, 25, 30, 49, 62, 104, 107, 137, 236
sentinel parameters for, 222
See also Contaminants;
Health and safety testing;
Health risks;
Human risks;
Sensitive populations;
Water quality
microbial, 129-131
steps in performing, 130
for unidentified trace organic compounds, 5, 227-229
Risk characterization, 10-11, 131-135, 176
Rotating biological contactors, 91
Rotavirus, 83
group B, 84
testing for, 77
S
Safe Drinking Water Act, 2, 5, 14, 31, 129
amendments to, 51
latest reauthorization of, 180
Safety evaluations.
See also Health and safety testing
future of, 180-182
inadequacy of current approaches, 9
progression in, 139-140
of reclaimed water, 135-136
culturing for, 77
infectivity of, 131-134
low levels of, 125
reporting, 235
S. typhi, 76
Salt River Valley, 28-29
Salt water.
See Seawater intrusion
Samples.
See Water samples
San Diego's Total Resources Recovery Project, 29, 47-49, 104-106, 164, 167, 170-172
conceptual design diagram of, 226
feasibility study for, 200-201
microbiological findings in, 126
Sand filtration processes, 97-100, 107, 214
Screening, physical.
See Preliminary screening
Screening studies, 141-143, 173-174
Secondary effluent
microbial contaminants in, 90-92, 94, 98
nitrification of, 27
Secondary infections, 133
Secondary water treatment, 5, 21, 241
Selection bias, 152-153
Sensitive populations, 8, 82, 133, 144, 155-156
Sensitivities, varying, 150, 196
Sentinel parameters, 12, 151, 222-223
Seroprevalence survey, 85
Settling out, 91
Sewage contamination, exposures to, 3, 17.
See also Excreta, human
Shigella
culturing for, 77
reporting, 235
Short-circuiting, 12, 215-216, 237
Short-term emergencies.
See Emergencies
Silica, precipitation of, 62
SOCs.
See Synthetic organic chemicals
Soil aquifer treatment (SAT), 29, 219
Soil interaction effects, 4
Source control.
See Pollutant source control programs
Spikes, 50
See also Contaminant breakthroughs
Spiking trials, 105
Spreading, 28
St. Petersburg (Florida) reclamation facility, 99-101
Stabilization ponds, 91
Standards.
See Water standards
State guidelines, 14
See also individual states
Storage.
See Water storage
Streptococci, as indicator bacteria, 127
Subchronic toxicity, 16
Surface percolation.
See Percolation
Surface Water Treatment Rule, 95-96, 119, 129, 209
Surrogate parameters, 67-69
Surveillance programs
strengths and limitations of, 234-235
and water reclamation, 12-13, 232-234
Susceptibility, biomarkers for, 149-150
Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), 5, 69, 117, 227-228, 237
T
Tampa Water Resource Recovery Project, 9, 29-30, 47-52, 102-105, 164, 167, 172-180
Technology.
See Water treatment
Tertiary water treatment, 5, 21-25, 29, 58, 96
Testing water.
See Health and safety testing
Texas.
See Fred Hervey Water Reclamation Plant
Timing problems in safety testing, 181
Total organic carbon (TOC), 41, 67-68, 227-229
Total organic halogen (TOX), 41, 55-58
Total Resource Recovery Project.
See San Diego
Total suspended solids (TSS), monitoring, 39
Toxic Substances Control Act, 140
Toxicological evaluation, 3-5.
See also Genotoxicity
central role in reclamation projects, 20, 140-142, 156-157
continuous, 10
information incomplete, 4, 135
integrated, 9-10
qualitative, 10
recommendations concerning, 201-203
reliable method needed, 67-69, 182
subchronic, 16
tiered tests, 16
Trace contaminants.
See Contaminants;
Organic compounds
Training operators for water treatment facilities, 13, 235-236, 238
Transformation probability distributions, 244
Treatment.
See Water standards;
Water treatment
Treatment trains, 99, 111, 170-172, 211-213
conceptual diagram of, 243
Trickling filtration process, 21, 53, 91, 104
Trihalomethanes (THMs), removing, 50, 53-57
Trout, 184
U
Ultrafiltration, 30
Ultraviolet light (UV) processes, 53, 97, 236
Unidentified contaminants.
See Contaminants;
Microbial contaminants;
Organic compounds
Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority (UOSA) reclamation project, 30-31, 104-107
Upstream discharges.
See Wastewater
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 26, 164
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, xi
U.S. Geological Survey, 62
Utility companies.
See Water utilities
V
Vadose zones, 37-38
Variability, 219-220
securing data about, 6
Viability decisions.
See Water agencies
Vibrio cholerae O139, 84
Viral pathogens, 6.
See also individual viruses
enteric, diseases from, 82-83
increased danger from, 6
list of, 75
need for data about, 7
studies of, 100
Virginia.
See Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority (UOSA) reclamation project
W
Washington, D.C.
See Potomic Estuary Experimental Wastewater Treatment Plant
Wastewater.
See also Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT);
Reclaimed water;
Water treatment;
Water treatment facilities
chemicals found in, 46
compared to natural water, 63-64
microbial contaminants in untreated, 89-90
municipal, reusing, 2
quality spectrum of, 19
upstream discharges of, 2, 15, 217-219
Water agencies, 3-4
decision-making by, 4, 16, 42-43, 88-89
Water conservation, 3
Water courses for storage, 2
Water disposal, providing for, 12, 30, 237
Water distribution.
See Reliability issues;
Water utilities
Water Factory 21, 22, 25, 27-28, 50, 53-54, 101-104
flow schematic for, 24
transformation probability distributions for, 244-245
Water hyacinths, in secondary water treatment, 29, 86
Water management, 1.
See also Drinking water;
Reclaimed water
of chemical inputs to reuse systems, 50-53
of disinfection by-products to reuse systems, 53-58
Water quality issues, 12-13, 208-238.
See also Water standards
Water reclamation projects.
See Proposed potable reuse projects;
Water treatment facilities;
and individual reclamation projects
chemical contaminants in, 45-71
microbial contaminants in, 74-112
monitoring, 223-224
role of toxicological testing in, 140-141
surveillance programs in, 232-234
Water Resource Development Act of 1974, 26
Water safety.
See Health and safety testing
Water samples, preparing, 180
flow-proportioned composites, 224
Water sources.
See Drinking water
Water standards, 18-20.
See also Drinking water;
Health and safety testing
developing more appropriate, 7, 9, 16, 109-110
Water storage, environmental, 1-2, 4, 214-217
amount needed, 225
protection provided by, 2, 9, 20-21
Water supplies
chemicals naturally present in, 4
degraded, 19
discharging wastewater into, 217-219
Water testing.
See Health and safety testing
Water treatment, 1, 3-4, 4, 21.
See also Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT);
Pretreatment programs;
Water storage;
Water treatment facilities;
and individual processes
advanced technologies for, 1, 21-29, 101-109
chemicals added or generated during, 4
conventional, 92
effectiveness of various levels of, 8
failures of, 208-209
modifying processes, 5
processes listed, 22-23
secondary or tertiary, 5, 21-22
using chemical with physical processes, 6, 109
Water treatment facilities.
See also Response measures
managing, 2
plant-by-plant reviews, 9
reclamation within, 2
training and certifying operators for, 13, 235-236, 238
Water utilities.
See also Water agencies
need for greater knowledgeability by, 20
using water with major wastewater components, 2, 18
Waterborne diseases, 74-88, 150
designating coordinator for, 233-234
dramatic decline in, 6
emerging, 80-83
link to infectious agents, 11
need for better data on, 7
Western Consortium for Public Health, xi
Whittier Narrows Water Reclamation Plant (WRP), 27
Whole-animal testing.
See In vivo testing
Windhoek (South Africa) Direct Water Reclamation System, 25-26, 104-105, 164, 168, 190-192
Y
Youths.
See Sensitive populations