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Scientific Opportunities
in the
Human Exploration of Space
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Scientific Opportunities
in the
Human Exploration of Space
Committee on Human Exploration
Space Studies Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1994
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board
of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences
and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures
approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the further-
ance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of
the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to
advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is
president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National
Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National
Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs,
encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers.
Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of
policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility
given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the
federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research,
and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is President of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's pur-
poses of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accor-
dance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal
operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engi-
neering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute
of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman,
respectively, of the National Research Council.
Support for this project was provided by Contract NASW 4627 between the National
Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Cover: Mars mosaic image courtesy of Alfred McEwen of the U.S. Geological Survey,
Flagstaff, Arizona. Lunar crescent image courtesy of Dennis di Cicco. Cover design by Penny
Margolskee.
Copies of this report are available from Space Studies Board, National Research Council, 2101
Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.
Copyright 1994 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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COMMITTEE ON HUMAN EXPLORATION
NOEL W. HINNERS, Martin Marietta Astronautics Company, Chair
RICHARD L. GARWIN,* IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
LOUIS J. LANZEROTTI, AT&T Bell Laboratories
ELLIOTT C. LEVINTHAL,* Stanford University
WILLIAM J. MERRELL, JR., Texas A&M University
ROBERT H. MOSER, University of New Mexico
JOHN E. NAUGLE,t National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(retired)
GEORGE DRIVER NELSON, University of Washington
SALLY K. RIDE,* University of California, San Diego
MARCIA S. SMITH,l Congressional Research Service
GERALD J. WASSERBURG,l California Institute of Technology
Staff
DAVID H. SMITH, Executive Secretary
BOYCE N. AGNEW, Administrative Assistant
*Former committee member who participated in writing this report.
"Committee members added for third CHEX study who participated in writing this report.
. . .
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SPACE STUDIES BOARD
LOUIS J. LANZEROTTI, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Chair
JOSEPH A. BURNS, Cornell University
ANDREA K. DUPREE,* Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
JOHN A. DUTTON, Pennsylvania State University
ANTHONY W. ENGLAND, University of Michigan
LARRY ESPOSITO,* University of Colorado
JAMES P. FERRIS, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
HERBERT FRIEDMAN, Naval Research Laboratory
RICHARD GARWIN,* IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
RICCARDO GIACCONI,* IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
HAROLD J. GUY, University of California, San Diego
NOEL W. HINNERS, Martin Marietta Astronautics Company
JAMES R. HOUCK,* Cornell University
DAVID A. LANDGREBE,* Purdue University
ROBERT A. LAUDISE, AT&T Bell Laboratories
RICHARD S. LINDZEN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN H. McELROY, University of Texas, Arlington
WILLIAM J. MERRELL, JR., Texas A&M University
RICHARD K. MOORE,* University of Kansas
ROBERT H. MOSER,* University of New Mexico
NORMAN F. NESS, University of Delaware
MARCIA NEUGEBAUER, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
SIMON OSTRACH, Case Western Reserve University
JEREMIAH P. OSTRIKER, Princeton University
CARLE M. PIETERS, Brown University
JUDITH PIPHER, University of Rochester
MARK SETTLE,* ARCO Oil Company
WILLIAM A. SIRIGNANO, University of California, Irvine
JOHN W. TOWNSEND, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(retired)
FRED W. TUREK, Northwestern University
ARTHUR B.C. WALKER, JR., Stanford University
MARC S. ALLEN, Director
*Former member.
TV
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COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
RICHARD N. ZARE, Stanford University, Chair
RICHARD S. NICHOLSON, American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Vice Chair
STEPHEN L. ADLER, Institute for Advanced Study
JOHN A. ARMSTRONG, IBM Corporation (retired)
SYLVIA T. CEYER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
AVNER FRIEDMAN, University of Minnesota
SUSAN L. GRAHAM, University of California, Berkeley
ROBERT J. HERMANN, United Technologies Corporation
HANS MARK, University of Texas, Austin
CLAIRE E. MAX, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
CHRISTOPHER F. McKEE, University of California, Berkeley
JAMES W. MITCHELL, AT&T Bell Laboratories
JEROME SACKS, National Institute of Statistical Sciences
A. RICHARD SEEBASS III, University of Colorado
CHARLES P. SLIGHTER, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
ALVIN W. TRIVELPIECE, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
v
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Preface
In 1988 the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy
of Engineering stated in the report, Toward a New Era in Space: Realigning
Policies to New Realities, that "the ultimate decision to undertake further
voyages of human exploration and to begin the process of expanding human
activities into the solar system must be based on nontechnical factors." It is
clear, however, that if and when a program of human exploration is initi-
ated, the U.S. research community must play a central role by providing the
scientific advice necessary to help make the relevant political and technical
. .
decisions.
Since its establishment in 1958, the Space Studies Board (SSB; for-
merly the Space Science Board) has been the principal nongovernmental
advisory body on civil space research in the United States. In this capacity,
the board established the Committee on Human Exploration (CHEX) in
1989 to examine many of the science and science policy matters concerned
with the return of astronauts to the Moon and eventual voyages to Mars.
The board asked CHEX to consider three major questions:
1. What scientific knowledge must be obtained as a prerequisite for
prolonged human space missions?
2. What scientific opportunities might derive from prolonged human
space missions?
3. What basic principles should guide the management of both the
prerequisite science activities necessary to enable human exploration and
. .
vat
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. . .
vile
PREFACE
the scientific activities that may be carried out in conjunction with human
exploration?
This report focuses on the second of these topics. The first topic was
covered in Scientific Prerequisites for the Human Exploration of Space,
published in 1993; the third topic is the subject of a future report.
The Space Studies Board and CHEX concluded that the existing re-
search strategies of several of the board's discipline committees form a
basis for beginning to determine the scientific research opportunities that
might arise if and when humans undertake voyages to the Moon and Mars.
(See the appendix for a list of these committees and their contributing
members.) CHEX thus asked the discipline committees to identify those
scientific opportunities and classify them under two headings: (1) those
that can be conducted only in association with long-term human missions
and (2) those that could also be conducted by other means (for example,
robotic or ground-based) to achieve the same or equivalent goals.
Early in their analyses the discipline committees found that, with one
exception, they were not able to identify opportunities that unambiguously
require human presence. The exception, the study of the effects of pro-
longed missions to the Moon and Mars on human physiology and psychol-
ogy, is in and of itself of low priority absent a program of human explora-
tion. Regarding opportunities that are in competition with other means,
difficulty was encountered because of the considerable uncertainty existing
concerning the practical capability of humans and the eventual capabilities
of robotic missions over the long time scale involved in any program of
human exploration. The committees thus expanded their advice to include
the following considerations:
1. Identification of those scientific objectives for the Moon and Mars
for which human presence can play a significant role;
2. Discussion of the realistic capabilities of humans and robots in
planetary exploration and in carrying out scientific investigations in those
environments;
3. Discussion of the appropriate phasing and mix of human and robotic
activities in achieving those objectives;
4. Discussion of the requirements for crew selection and training, tech-
nical development, and program structure to meet the scientific objectives
in a program of human exploration; and
5. Identification of robotic scientific opportunities that may be enabled
by some of the technology developed for the human exploration program.
CHEX itself developed a description of the overall role of science in a
program of human exploration. In that context, it then assimilated, evalu
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PREFACE
MIX
ated, and integrated the contributions of the discipline committees. Infor-
mation on the biomedical research opportunities arising from prolonged
space missions was provided by the SSB's Committee on Space Biology
and Medicine. Input on field science, the relative capabilities of humans
and robots, and the search for planets around other stars was supplied by the
SSB's Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration. (CHEX consulted A
Strategy for the Scientific Exploration of Mars, by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration's Mars Science Working Group, for additional
information on the planetological and exobiological aspects of Mars precur-
sor science.) Research opportunities in astrophysics and solar and space
physics were considered by the SSB's Committee on Solar and Space Phys-
ics and the Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate's Committee on
Solar-Terrestrial Research. Astronomical input from these discipline com-
mittees was augmented with material from The Decade of Discovery in
Astronomy and Astrophysics, a report written by the National Research Council's
Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee. Details of the individual
scientific strategies and goals of the relevant discipline committees, on which
they based much of their input, are contained in the reports listed in the
bibliography.
Noel W. Hinners, Chair
Committee on Human
Exploration
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26 SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITES IN THE HUMAN EXPLORATION OF SPACE
cality for orbiting structures. Such a goal might, however, be met by a
large lunar-based structure, one that would be extremely stable to both
translational and torsional deformation. On-site engineers might be re-
quired to construct such a structure to the necessary tolerances and to con-
duct maintenance operations such as realignment of apertures.
C7 C7 7
LIFE SCIENCES
One of the more important physical features that influenced the evolu-
tion of life on Earth, and which places constraints on the development and
functioning of all living organisms, is gravity. Once the factor of gravity is
removed from the environment, living systems are altered, and the study of
such alterations may lead to new insights into life processes.
The space life sciences are still in their infancy, and there have been
few opportunities to carry out well-controlled experiments on living organ
Thus it is not yet possible to predict how prolonged expo-
sure to near-zero or fractional Cavity will alter living systems. However.
1sms in space.
C7 ~ C7 ~
sufficient information is available to know that the absence of normal grav-
ity profoundly alters living systems; thus exploration missions to the Moon
and Mars will offer additional opportunity beyond Earth-orbiting space sta-
tions. to investigate the fundamental biological processes by which gravity
affects living organisms.3i
Missions to the Moon and Mars will also provide an opportunity for
behavioral studies on crews under highly stressful conditions as well as
over prolonged periods of time in close confinement. Such research would
build on more than three decades of experience of human behavior and
performance gathered from overwintering personnel at polar research sta-
tions. However, behavioral studies of the crews at a lunar outpost or on a
Mars mission will provide new insights into human behavior because no
polar base or even space station environment can duplicate all the condi-
tions astronauts would experience on extended mission in deep space.32 In
the case of Mars, additional stress will result from the absence of any ready
means of escape.
Both the gravitational biology and the behavioral studies are truly op-
portunistic; they are not now currently of high scientific priority in the life
sciences community absent a program of human space exploration.
SCIENCE ENABLED BY TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPED
FOR A MOON/MARS PROGRAM
The technology developments needed for successful exploration of the
Moon and Mars are numerous and are spread throughout many disciplines.
For example, a recent study identified 14 relevant areas of technology de
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SCIENCE ENABLED BY HUMAN EXPLORATION
27
velopment.33 Some of the general benefits to scientific investigations of
two of these areas spacesuits and telerobotics are discussed above.
Some technology developments could enable robotic space-science missions
unrelated to Moon/Mars exploration. For example, nuclear electric propul-
sion could enable several high-priority missions in heliospheric physics.
Principal among these is the so-called interstellar probe.34 This mission
would penetrate a significant distance beyond the heliopause to provide the
first comprehensive in situ studies of the plasma, energetic particles, cosmic
rays, magnetic fields, gas, and dust in interstellar space. An advanced
propulsion system is required to send a spacecraft 250 astronomical units
from the Sun in significantly less than the 25 years or more required by
conventional propulsion aided by gravity assists. Once such an advanced
propulsion system is available, it could also be used for other high-energy
missions, such as to propel instruments to large distances above the solar
poles or into a short-period, circular solar polar orbit, and, perhaps, even a
short-period eccentric orbit that skims through the solar corona at altitudes
as low as three solar radii.35
SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
CHEX has given considered thought to how space science might ben-
efit from the existence of a program of human exploration of the Moon and
Mars, undertaken primarily for reasons other than science. History tells us
that no matter when such a program is undertaken, a major activity will be
scientific research. Indeed, CHEX concludes that there will be opportuni-
ties offering the potential for significantly enhancing our understanding of
the Moon and Mars and for using them selectively as observation platforms.
CHEX thus foresees a productive scientific role for human explorers as well
as for continuing and enhanced robotic missions. The obvious conclusion is
that scientists must participate in any eventual program of human explora-
tion, although the question of how best to involve them must still be an-
swered.
Scientists' past experiences with piloted spaceflight have been both
good and bad. We can learn much from those (particularly the Apollo
program) in terms of how NASA should approach science management and
the involvement of scientists in a program of human exploration. That topic
is under study and will be the subject of the third CHEX report. It is
already clear to the committee, however, that scientists must be intimately
involved in every stage of the endeavor and contribute to success by assur-
ing that quality science is accomplished, that the science supported takes
the best advantage of human presence, and that the resources available to
the whole of space science are competitively allocated.
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28 SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITES IN THE HUMAN EXPLORATION OF SPACE
REFERENCES
1. William David Compton, Where No Man Has Gone Before, A History of the Apollo
Lunar Exploration Missions, The NASA History Series, NASA SP-4214, NASA, Washington,
D.C., 1989.
2. NASA, A Planetary Science Strategy for the Moon, JSC-25920, Lunar Exploration
Science Working Group, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, July 1992.
3. NASA, Geosciences and a Lunar Base: A Comprehensive Plan for Lunar Explora-
tion, NASA Conference Publication 3070, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1990.
4. NASA, A Planetary Science Strategy for the Moon, JSC-25920, Lunar Exploration
Science Working Group, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, July 1992, page 8.
5. Space Studies Board, The Search for Life's Origins: Progress and Future Direc-
tions in Planetary Biology and Chemical Evolution, National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C., 1990, page 8.
6. Space Studies Board, 1990 Update to Strategy for the Exploration of the Inner
Planets, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1990, page 24.
7. Space Studies Board, Biological Contamination of Mars: Issues and Recommenda-
tions, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1992, Chapter 4.
8. Space Studies Board, Strategy for Exploration of the Inner Planets: 1977-1987,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1978, page 71.
9. NASA, A Planetary Science Strategy for the Moon, JSC-25920, Lunar Exploration
Science Working Group, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, July 1992, page 6.
10. Space Studies Board, Space Science in the Twenty-First Century: Imperatives for
the Decades 1995 to 2015-Planetary and Lunar Exploration, National Academy Press, Wash-
ington, D.C., 1988, page 101.
11. Y. Kondo (ed.), Observatories in Earth Orbit and Beyond, Proceedings of the 123rd
Colloquium of the International Astronomical Union, Greenbelt, Maryland, April 24-27, 1990,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1990.
12. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, Chapter 6.
13. Synthesis Group, America at the Threshold, Report of the Synthesis Group on America's
Space Exploration Initiative, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1991, page
A-24.
14. NASA, Future Astronomical Observatories on the Moon, NASA Conference Publi-
cation 2489, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1988.
15. Michael J. Mumma and Harlan J. Smith (eds.), Astrophysics from the Moon, AIP
Conference Proceedings 207, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1990.
16. Synthesis Group, America at the Threshold, Report of the Synthesis Group on America's
Space Exploration Initiative, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1991, page
A-26.
17. Space Studies Board, A Strategy for the Explorer Program for Solar and Space
Physics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1984, pages 29-30.
18. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, Chapter 6.
19. European Space Agency, Mission to the Moon: Europe's Priorities for the Scien-
tific Exploration and Utilization of the Moon, Report of the Lunar Study Steering Group, ESA
SP-1150, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, June 1992.
20. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991.
21. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, page 108.
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SCIENCE ENABLED BY HUMAN EXPLORATION
29
22. Bernard F. Burke, "Astrophysics from the Moon," Science, 250, December 7, 1990,
page 1365.
23. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, page 104.
24. NASA, TOPS: Toward Other Planetary Systems, A report by the Solar System
Exploration Division, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1992.
25. Astronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, The Decade of Discovery in As-
tronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, page 104.
26. Space Studies Board, Space Science in the Twenty-First Century: Imperatives for
the Decades 1995-2015-Astronomy and Astrophysics, National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C., 1988, page 31.
27. Space Studies Board, Assessment of Programs in Solar and Space Physics 1991,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, page 14.
28. Michael L. Cherry, "Particle Astrophysics and Cosmic Ray Studies from a Lunar
Base," Astrophysics from the Moon, Michael J. Mumma and Harlan J. Smith (eds.), AIP
Conference Proceedings 207, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1990, page 593.
29. Laurence E. Peterson, "High Energy Astrophysics from the Moon," Astrophysics
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30. Paul Gorenstein, "High-Energy Astronomy from a Lunar Base," Future Astronomi-
cal Observatories on the Moon, NASA Conference Publication 2489, NASA, Washington,
D.C., 1988, page 45.
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National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991.
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National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991, Chapter 4.
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Space Exploration Initiative, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1991, page
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
31
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Appendix
Participating Discipline Committees
COMMITTEE ON SPACE BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE
FRED W. TUREK, Northwestern University, Chair
ROBERT M. BERNE, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
PETER DEWS, Harvard Medical School
R.J. MICHAEL FRY, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
FRANCIS (DREW) GAFFNEY, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas
EDWARD GOETZL, University of California Medical Center,
San Francisco
ROBERT HELMREICH, University of Texas, Austin
JAMES LACKNER, Brandeis University
BARRY W. PETERSON, Northwestern University
CLINTON T. RUBIN, State University of New York, Stony Brook
ALAN L. SCHILLER, Mt. Sinai Medical Center
TOM SCOTT, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
WARREN SINCLAIR, National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements
WILLIAM THOMPSON, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
FRED WILT, University of California, Berkeley
33
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34
APPENDIX
COMMITTEE ON SOLAR AND SPACE PHYSICS
MARCIA NEUGEBAUER, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Co-Chair
THOMAS CRAVENS, University of Kansas
JONATHAN F. ORMES, Goddard Space Flight Center
GEORGE K. PARKS, University of Washington
DOUGLAS M. RABIN, National Optical Astronomy Observatories
DAVID M. RUST, Johns Hopkins University
RAYMOND J. WALKER, University of California, Los Angeles
YUK L. YUNG, California Institute of Technology
RONALD D. ZWICKL, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
COMMITTEE ON SOLAR-TERRESTRIAL RESEARCH
DONALD J. WILLIAMS, Applied Physics Laboratory, Co-Chair
ALAN C. CUMMINGS, California Institute of Technology
GORDON EMSLIE, University of Alabama
DAVID C. FRITTS, University of Colorado
ROLANDO R. GARCIA, National Center for Atmospheric Research
MARGARET G. KIVELSON, University of California, Los Angeles
DAVID J. McCOMAS, Los Alamos National Laboratory
JONATHAN F. ORMES, Goddard Space Flight Center
EUGENE N. PARKER, University of Chicago
JAMES F. VICKREY, SRI International
*The National Research Council's (NRC) Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research (CSTR)
and Committee on Solar and Space Physics (CSSP) meet jointly as a federated committee and
report directly to their parent NRC boards, the Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate for
CSTR and the Space Studies Board for CSSP.
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APPENDIX
COMMITTEE ON PLANETARY AND LUNAR EXPLORATION
LARRY W. ESPOSITO, University of Colorado, Chair
RETA BEEBE, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces
ALAN P. BOSS, Carnegie Institution of Washington
ANITA L. COCHRAN, University of Texas, Austin
PETER J. GIERASCH, Cornell University
WILLIAM S. KURTH, University of Iowa, Iowa City
LUCY-ANN McFADDEN, University of California, San Diego
CHRISTOPHER P. McKAY, NASA Ames Research Center
DUANE O. MUHLEMAN, California Institute of Technology
NORMAN R. PACE, Indiana University
GRAHAM RYDER, Lunar and Planetary Institute
PAUL D. SPUDIS, Lunar and Planetary Institute
PETER H. STONE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
GEORGE WETHERILL, Carnegie Institution of Washington
RICHARD W. ZUREK, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
35
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
space studies
